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Qumran Timeline
Incorporating
Egyptian, Babylonian,
Hittite, Persian, and Roman
Reference Timelines

Best viewed full screen in Netscape 4 or IE 4 at 800 x 600 x 256 (or more) colors.

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Quick Index by Stratigraphic Interval Neolithic Age Chalcolithic Age Early Bronze Age I-III Early Bronze Age IV Middle Bronze Age I Middle Bronze Age IIA Middle Bronze Age IIB Middle Bronze Age IIC Late Bronze Age I Late Bronze Age IIA Late Bronze Age IIB Iron Age IA & IB Iron Age IC Iron Age IIA & IIB Babylonian Period Persian Period (IA III) Hellenistic Period Roman Period

Quick Index by Starting Date 4.4million BP, 10,000 BCE ~~~> 5,000,  2,000,  1,200, 950,  800,  700, 600,  500,  400, 332,  300,  175, 167,  165,  160, 150,  140,  100, 60,  40,  39,  20, 1 BCE<~~~>1 CE, 20,  40,  45,  55, 65,  68,  70,  75, 100 CE~~> Introduction Sources and NotesAncient Timeline for Qumran, Palestine, Syria, Egypt and Rome Modern Timeline for Qumran, Israel and Jordan

Quick Index by Dynasty Pre-Dynastic Period, Early Dynastic Period, 0,  1,  2, Old Kingdom, 3,  4,  5,  6, First Intermediate Period, 7,  8,  9,  10,  11, Middle Kingdom, 11 cont.,  12, Second Intermediate Period, 13,  14,  15,  16,  17, New Kingdom, 18,  19,  20, Third Intermediate Period 21-Tanite,  21-Theban 22,  23,  24, Late Kingdom 25,  26, 1st Persian Period 27,  28,  29,  30, 2nd Persian Period Ptolemaic Dynasty, Roman Emperors,

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Sources and Notes

• • I’ve extended the range backwards to include current scientific estimates for some very ancient milestones in human and hominid pre-history. These are not dates in the conventional sense, and I have designated these BP (before present) to distinguish them from the more recent, historical events; which should, in principle, be dateable. To get an even broader perspective on the relative newness of human culture, consider that the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old; that evidence for life on Earth goes back about 3.2 billion years; but that life on dry land goes back only about 500 million years (half a billion); and that the earliest mammals make only a dim impression on the fossil record until about 40 million years ago. Almost everything of interest about human culture has happened in the most recent one-quarter of one-tenth of one percent of the age of mammals. On that time scale all the historical dates in this timeline are late breaking news.
  • The conventional Egyptian timelines that I’ve been consulting contain a range of dates for most of the dynastic periods. In this timeline, I am using the low (most recent) conventional dates I can find. Usually, these are the dates listed in David M. Rohl’s book, Pharaohs and Kings, which he attributes to Kenneth Kitchen’s Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (for Dynasties 21 to 26), Kitchen’s low chronology in “The Basics of Egyptian Chronology in Relation to the Bronze Age,” in High, Middle, or Low, P. Astrom, ed. (Gothenburg, 1987) (for Dynasties 11 to 20), and John Baines and Jaromir Malek’s Atlas of Ancient Egypt (Oxford, 1980) (for Dynasties 1 to 10). I haven’t been smart enough to spot the 60 year discrepancy that Rohl says exists near the start of the 11th Dynasty, so I am making no attempt to adjust for it. The process of resetting all the dates here to match Rohl’s dates is currently in progress. I do not plan to take the additional step of adjusting the conventional Third Intermediate period dates as Rohl argues in his book, but I do plan to examine the consequences of making his suggested adjustment.
  • A few dates which seem to be very firmly established will be marked with a light red background, as follows:

  LIGHT RED BACKGROUND

  • As time permits, I will be adding the non-conventional Egyptian dates discussed by David M. Rohl in his book (see below). To set these off from the accepted dates, they will be inclosed in a violet background, like this:

  VIOLET BACKGROUND

  • Any number of on-line sources have been found containing images of a few pharaohs. I am currently making an extensive search for images that include either the image of each pharaoh or his hieroglyphic name, or both. As time permits, I will add these to the list of pharaohs in each dynasty. The plan is to let each image here mark the link to the page where the original of that image can be viewed. Most of the images are not stored at this site, so IF an image does not appear on this page, then the original site is either not responding or has moved. When an image does appear, just click on the image to go to the site. This is fairly time consuming, so this process will take some time to complete. See Dynasties 0 and 1 below for examples of how the work is progressing.
  • it is destructive (the same sample never gets analyzed twice);
  • no one knows exactly what effects fires, bacterial/animal contamination, soil leaching, and miscellaneous unknown processes have on each sample;
  • it is never “good” to much better than plus/minus 25 years (that is more than just few pharaohs during certain periods of Egyptian history); and
  • its errors accumulate and get larger the older the sample gets.
  Anyone with specialized knowledge that supplements or corrects this timeline is welcome to e-mail suggested corrections and additions. Since even the consensus timeline inevitably evolves, both with time and additional field work by professional archaeologists, this one, which is hardly professional or original, is, like every other timeline, merely provisional. Which is to say it works well enough as a baseline reference for my purposes. For others, it may not work as well. All are welcome to consult it, provided everyone understands that it may contain significant errors or unwarranted speculation and may be revised at any time without notice.
  • The original internet source was the on-line version of the touring Dead Sea Scrolls Exhibit sponsored by the Library of Congress and the Israel Antiquities Authority. Check out the on-line version at either the Sunsite – Dead Sea Scroll Exhibit or the UNC – Dead Sea Scroll Exhibit.
    For a critique of the touring exhibition by a well respected scroll scholar whose opinion is independent of the Library of Congress, the participating museums, the Israel Antiquities Authority, and the current International Team of Editors, see Norman Golb’s Letter, dated January 14, 1994, to Ms. Melissa Leventon, Curator of the Exhibit, and Mr. Harry S. Parker III, Director of the de Young Museum in San Francisco, the third stop on the Exhibit’s United States tour. The letter was reprinted in The Aspin Institute Quarterly, v6#2 (Spring 1994) pp 79-98.]
  • For population information the main on-line reference site is:
    The Historical Estimates of World Population
  • On-line sources for Egyptian Chronology include:
    the King List,
    the Ancient History Timeline,
    a Chronology of Ancient Egypt,
    the EAWC Chronology of Egypt, and
    the History of Egypt page.
  • On-line sources for dendrochronology research and results, in addition to those mentioned above, include:
    The University of Arizona Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research. Tree Rings and Volcanoes by Nigel Bruce and Jim Hunt.
    Tree Ring and C-14 Dating
    Search the Bibliography of Dendrochronology at the University of Arizona
  • Some useful hardcopy sources (most published in paperback) include:
    Peter A. Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, The Reign by Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt (Thames and Hudson, London and New York 1994, reprinted 1998).Josephus, “The Jewish War”, G. A. Williamson (trans.), and E. Mary Smallwood (revised with new introduction, notes and appendixes) (Penguin, London 1981).

    Geza Vermes, “The Dead Sea Scrolls in English”, Revised and Extended Fourth Edition (Penguin, London 1995).

    Norman Golb, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The Search for the Secret of Qumran (Touchstone, New York 1996).

    “An Illustrated Atlas of the Bible” – Terrain Maps, Photographs, City Plans, Diagrams, Time Chart of Bible History, Gazetteer, Harry Thomas Frank (ed.), Roger S. Boraass (consultant for rev. ed.) (Maplewood, NJ: Broadman Press, 1990).

    Frank Moore Cross, “The Ancient Library of Qumran”, 3rd ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995).

NOTICE: This Timeline is undergoing some significant revisions.

Chronological Uncertainties

A good timeline provides, necessarily, information about the timing of a limited number of points in time (coronation of a king, eclipse of the sun, etc.) and the relative timing and duration of certain extended events (length of a kingly reign, duration of a war, etc.). The duration data is usually more securely known than the date because it if often given in the primary documents.Placing the events in order requires some luck and attention to a lot of detail, but that gives the next most secure piece of information, the relative dates. Relative dates are very useful because if the data include non-overlapping reigns, for example, then their durations can be added to calculate longer time spans. If their durations are not known, longer spans can still be estimated using either an average reign length or an average generation length. Both produce somewhat uncertain numbers, and estimates based on either are necessarily uncertain as well. Still in a few reigns or generations, one would not expect to be off by more than a decade or so and that is often good enough to make the estimated date worth having. But it is not the sort of date one can use in making close calls that require accuracy of a year or so instead of a decade or so.

Events with absolute dates are the most precious items in a chronologists arsenal of logical weapons. They are rare and valuable treasures. Fortunately, it is thought, not a lot of absolute dates will be required if the relative dating is done carefully and accurately.

The last of the valuable weapons in a chronologists tool kit chronologists are synchronisms. These are also rare events (or should I say the evidence for such events is rare) which bring the timelines of different regions into direct contact with each other. In the past these seemed rare even in the face of the logic which suggested that the various empires were in more or less constant contact. As absolute and relative dates have been refined it looks as though there will be more evidence of synchronisms welling up from the data. Furthermore, some synchronisms have been, and others probably still are, hidden in the linguistic differences between the various regions. These might also be discovered with additional effort.

Interestingly, refinements in the chronologies improves the ability of chronologists to identify new synchronisms and that in turn allows them to refine their and our understanding of how different languages are used to express the names of known places and individuals. This means that linguistics (and all its sub-specialties that apply to the study of written language) can be used, in some sense, to verify or refute the chronologies that are being proposed. This is becoming quite an industry. More than ever before, the effective archaeologist or chronologist needs to be conversant in a dozen or more archaic languages in order to stay in the hunt.

Reigns of individual pharaohs and kings, or entire dynasties may overlap, but if the historical record that comes down to us doesn’t provide that information then the chronologist is stuck having to guess or argue in favor of an overlap. Otherwise, the sum of his reign lengths is going to add up to more years than a properly constructed chronology can hold. Alternatively, in the absence of a convincing argument demonstrating the overlap, the chronology will overestimate the duration of certain periods. This can artificially extend the apparent duration of events in one region relative to another. This coupled with linguistic difficulties can effectively obscure synchronisms that would, if recognized, have important historical implications. Serious attempts to define where the overlaps occur are not guaranteed success. A proposed chronology that seems to offer the best resolution to the various lines of conflicting information may be demonstrably wrong for some other reason which is not yet included in the available evidence.

Using synchronisms between contemporary events, and a carefully researched, and a fully documented and optimally accurate set of supporting dates, the professional chronologists attempt to create consistent and historically meaningful chronologies. There is little certainty in the construction and no assurance that tomorrow’s evidence will not significantly upset it. Thus, it is by increments, using logic and guesswork, that the chronologies viewed here and elsewhere on the web must be understood. They are transitory at their best and misleadingly wrong at their worst.

To begin, there must be some evidence to reasonably pin down at least a few of the important dates. Between those most secure dates it is always necessary to “estimate” the intervening dates using one or more methods, each with its own level of inherent uncertainty. Ideally, this strategy ensures that the estimated dates are pinned down between the more secure dates and that their relative dates are retained within the intervening interval. It does not ensure total accuracy. It would be more useful if instead of dates, we used date ranges, but even estimating the error of a particular date is impossible. If the scientific errors could be calculated, they would probably be so wide that the dates would be meaningless.

To add to these complications, history comes to us in the form of parallel isolated chronologies for separate geographical areas. Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt are sometimes on the same timeline and sometimes on separate timelines. It is not always easy to tell which is which. Obviously, chronologies from Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Macedonia and Hatti are built up from records recovered from the cities in those empires. None of these chronologies stands in isolation. To make the most of all the available evidence, chronologists try to tie the various chronologies together in order to work out the absolute dating for all of them by combining the strengths of each. For this synchronisms must be found between two or more regions that can tie key events to a common moment.

To develop evidence of the synchronisms chronologists want and need, they require data in the form of carved reliefs, written documents, pictorial representations, etc. that can tie two or more individuals or events together at the same moment in time. Frequently, this requires additional analysis on the etymology of the various forms of people and place names that appear in different languages. It is entirely possible, for example, for Egyptian and Assyrian scribes to write contemporary accounts about a mutual war. In the absence of other documentation, it is possible to mistakenly believe that the two accounts are of two different wars because the names of all the people involved and all the places where they fought are likely to be different in the two languages. Sometimes the name differences are easier to analyze than at other times. So there is always some concern that the “current” chronology has some background level of missed synchronisms, phantom (duplicate) events, and misplaced persons or events.

A chronology should not be equated with history, nor should history be confused with the events themselves. History is an intellectual construct based on the available evidence and it is as dynamic as the evidence. New finds can overturn a well recognized history and any chronology derived from it. A chronology depends on the same evidence and on the current history of the times it tries to encompass. New evidence can always undermine it. Reexaminations of the evidence can force a re-write of the history and that will necessitate a revision of the chronology.

Who’s Chronology is this?

I am merely trying to follow and understand what others have done. This chronology is not original; it is merely the current version of my ongoing attempts to understand the events of the ancient Near East as portrayed by the popular writings of the modern academic authors. It does not provide a critical reevaluation or reexamination of the fundamental evidence nor does it attempt to re-verify the generally accepted chronology. It does attempt on some small level to evaluate the claims by David M. Rohl that a significant reevaluation and revision of the Chronology of the Third Intermediate Period in Egypt is now justified. His attempted revision shortens the TIP and brings prior pharaonic periods forward to more recent times. This revision, in his view, radically effects the synchronisms that can be detected between the biblical accounts of the Israelites and Hebrews on the one hand and the pharaohs of Egypt and other powerful empires in the region. It should be remembered that this is all subject to change as I continue to study the evidence and revise my own views of the evidence.I have learned, too, that it is seldom obvious what is “generally accepted” by the community of experts in this field. There is only one truly well accepted date that has wide-ranging significance for constructing chronologies of this region. That is the sack of Thebes in 664 or 671 BCE. All older dates “sit on top” of this one. It is a rather long stretch to extrapolate from this relatively modern date to the third millennium BCE. And the further a date is from this one, the more chances there are for intervening errors to accumulate. ¹⁴Carbon dating, dendrochronology and reports of unique astronomical sightings (eclipses, for example) can provide some fixed-time reference points with calculable error limits. Such dates can in turn be used to begin the assault on estimating some of the other uncertainties. I have not yet found any analysis of the type I envision. Though as the evidence accumulates someone is bound to take up that challenge, eventually.

From Relative to Absolute Dates

Professional archaeologists are trained to deal with ancient cultures without committing to a specific set of dates. They seek first to establish relative times based on identifiable layers in the cross-sections they excavate through the sites studied. (Astronomers use red-shifts the same way and for the same reason. Absolute dates are too hard to come by.) The relative chronologies can be analyzed, revised and corrected without committing to a specific dating scheme. There will be time to worry about pinning down the exact dates later after more evidence is available.In developing a trans-regional chronology it is essential to discover synchronisms between the sub-regions. Evidence of correspondence between two kings, evidence of a meeting or a battle between two kings, evidence that the daughter of one king married another king are all examples of synchronisms. They serve to tie a point on one relative chronology to a specific point on another relative chronology. The more tightly one chronology is tied to another via mutual synchronisms, the more closely the intervening dates can be correlated to each other. This may allow unrecognized synchronisms to become more apparent.

The Hebrew Bible is potentially an invaluable source of many synchronisms between Canaan and its nearest mighty neighbors; provided that it can be demonstrated to have a considerable basis in fact. I am not convinced, however I am willing to use dates that rely on biblical synchronisms provided there is at least some independent source to back it up to some degree. Such uses have to be studied on a book-by-book and almost on a chapter by chapter basis. The problem with the Bible is that it has been around too long and subjected to too much revision. In the literal sense, archives buried and lost for 3,000 are more valuable to a chronologist because their provenance and provenience are easier to establish. Relative chronologies that rely on biblical stories without independent corroboration have to be considered very preliminary.

Because of their professional concern for establishing reliable relative dates, calendar dates are probably more interesting to amateurs than to professionals. Professional archaeologists, egyptologists, etc. understand that the relative dates are closer to their field data. It is the piece of the puzzle for which they are personally and professionally responsible. Relative dating is difficult enough. Absolute dates are always nice to have, but they can be overturned by new data coming from an unexpected source. The relative dates based on good field archaeology are more difficult to refute and provide a more secure legacy for an active career.

¹⁴Carbon dating has helped identify the absolute dates in some cases, but it has its own problems; lack of dateable samples, sample contamination, non-linearity in the changing ¹⁴Carbon background, statistical uncertainties inherent to the method itself, among others. The biggest problems with C-14 testing include:

Dendrochronology, potentially, offers much more precision, to within a year or two, however it has statistical and correlational problems^{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} of its own and it is not always possible to find a piece of wood that fits into a known dendrochronological sequence. Even with the wood in hand and a sequence within which to place it, there is often still some difficulty in determining where it belongs in that sequence. The atmospheric record based on the California bristlecone pine tree-ring record is a notable exception. There the record is complete and relatively clear for almost 8,500 years. Climate changes reflected in the bristlecone dendrochronological record have, for example, been correlated to volcanic eruptions, such as the eruption of Thera, in the Mediterranean Ocean south of Greece, now dated to 1627 BCE, plus or minus one year, based on the correlations between the historically dated eruptions and the bristlecone pine tree-ring record in California (unfortunately, the on-line archive at Nature does not seem to contain a copy of the original article by V. C. LaMarche and Katherine Hirsckboeck, “Frost rings in trees as records of major volcanic eruptions,” Nature 307 (12 January, 1984), 121-126). There is still some discussion and disagreement even about this date, however. For another alternative explanation also see Michael G. L. Baillie’s abstract for his paper presented at the conference on Natural Catastrophes during Bronze Age Civilisations held in 1997.

BTW: the Cornel University site linked to the beginning of the previous paragraph has links that will take you anywhere you want to go in the world of dendrochronoly on the web. It is a wonderful site which provides a good inside look at what goes on at the forefront of research in this area today.

To add even more confusion to the situation, it appears now that some Christian biblical research groups have already adopted this new dating with open arms. I personally like this date based on the type of study that was done. But there is no reason to enshrine it, yet. Correlations with other events in the region will have to be discovered through careful field research not delivered by prophecy.

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This is a collection of the dated events which I’ve encountered during my research on intertestamental Palestine. To begin the chronology I relied on a few general sources to give the Timeline a broad sweep and to give me some perspective on the relative timing of the events I was reading about. I have since added individual dates encountered casually during reading from a wide variety of on-line and off-line sources. The diversity of sources has resulted in a divergence of dates in many instances. For the moment I am not trying to rationalize the chronology into a single unified whole. (But see the notes above about using Clayton’s and Rohl’s pharaonic dates.)

This Timeline and the included historical information are indebted to numerous sources. Some of them are listed below.

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• Note 1:BCE (Before the Common Era) is equivalent to, but used here in preference to, BC (Before Christ). CE (Common Era) is equivalent to, but is used here in preference to, AD (Anno Domini – Year of our Lord). These abbreviations appear to be used interchangeably in many publications. These abbreviations, as used here, always follow the year or range of years. If not included, BCE should be assumed unless the context makes CE the obvious choice.Note 2: I’ve assembled this for my own benefit. I use it like a notepad for questions, comments, and speculations about historical events; many of which need further clarification. All are welcome to look over my shoulder (and make suggestions), but anyone using this timeline should understand that parts of it will always be in transition from one level of understanding on my part to another. This is not likely to become a well unified Timeline any time soon.

  I’ve relied on expert sources for the backbone, but I’ve also included surmises which may upon further study turn out to be wrong. The real benefit of such a timeline for me, or any student, comes from assembling and studying it. While this one is available for anyone to consult, the highest purpose it could serve would be to stimulate others to do the same for themselves. The benefits of working through the details are enormous and eventually lead to a much better appreciation of the nature, scope, duration, complexity, and significance of the critical events that shaped the lives, governance, conflicts, economies, and religions of the people of intertestamental Palestine, in particular, and in the Middle East, more generally.

  Note 3: If you have a comment, question or suggestion about any part of this timeline, please send me your e-mail. When you do, please “copy and paste” the appropriate section into your e-mail along with your message so that I can find the section(s) to which you refer with more certainty.

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• Qumran, Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Israel, Samaria & Judaea, and Rome.

  See also the Modern Timeline for Qumran, Israel and Jordan available at this site.

Ancient Timeline

• Earliest hominids (precursors of human lineage).

4.4 million BP

• New hominid species in the direct human lineage, australopithecus afarensis, appears and inhabits Ethiopia, walks on two legs and lives in social groups. (Johannson and White)

4 – 2 million BP

• Nutcracker Man lived in Tanzania; leaves footprints of one family group in the ash fall from a fresh volcanic eruption moistened by rainfall. Casts of their footsteps are covered by another ash fall and buried for almost two million years until discovered by Mary Leakey and her team.

1.8 million BP

• Homo habilis or tool-making man appears.

1.8 million BP

• Homo erectus, erect man, mistakenly thought to be the first bipedal hominid at the time it was classified, makes its first appearance in the fossil record.

1.7 million BP

• Homo erectus migrated to Europe and Asia.

c.1 million BP

• Homo neanderthalus diverges from the lineage that leads directly to modern humans and eventually distributes itself throughout Europe and western Asia.

c. 500,000 BP

• The “Eve” hypothesis shows that the ancestress of modern humans lived in Africa at about this time.

c. 200,000 BP

• Neanderthal Man, in Africa and Europe. Both groups had to have migrated out of Africa through Palestine. There is no other route for them to take.

100,000-40,000 BP

• Homo sapiens, wise man, appears. There is still controversy over how much social interaction, ie interbreeding and competition, existed between early homo neanderthalus and proto-homo sapiens.

100,000+ BP

• Neanderthal Man in Europe is replaced by anatomically modern humans; probably Cro-magnon spreading out of Africa into Asia and Europe. Neanderthals die out during this period. (Recent analysis of Mitochondrial DNA now shows that humans and Neanderthals probably did not inter-breed after Neanderthals moved out of Africa.)

40,000-30,000 BP

• The Paleolithic period, beginning around 25,000 years ago, brought climatic changes which turned Egypt into a desert. The inhabitants survived by hunting and fishing and through a primitive form of cultivation. Desertification of Egypt was halted by rains which allowed communities of cultivators to settle in Middle Egypt and the Nile Delta. These farmers grew wheat, flax and wove linen fabrics in addition to tending flocks.

c. 25,000 BP

• The most recent ice age ends. Humans begin the shift from a “Hunter Gatherer” subsistence, ie nomadic, life style to a settled “food cultivating” and animal domesticating life style in certain fertile regions (Western Asia; Egypt by 6,000 BCE).The first indigenous civilizations in Egypt have been identified in the south of the country through archaeological excavations. The Badarian culture is the earliest known developed Egyptian civilization based on farming, hunting and mining. Badarians produced fine pottery and carved objects as well as acquiring turquoise and wood through trading.

10,000-6,000 BCE

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9,000 BCEc. 8300 – 4500 BCE The Neolithic Period begins. The first permanent settlements appear; the domestication of plants (notably wheat) and animals (goats and sheep).Neolithic Period, ca. 5450-3850 BC. The Naqada lived in sizable settlements by about 4,000BC and produced decorated pottery and figurines made from clay and ivory which indicate they were a war-like people. Naqada artifacts from 3,300BC show further development both in terms of culture and technology. Evidence of irrigation systems and more advanced burial sites, as well as the use of alien materials like lapis lazuli, indicate a cultural diversity and the development of external trading. 5,000 BCE World Population estimates = 5 – 20 million. This is up from the estimates of 1 – 10 million in 10,000 BCE.

N E O L I T H I C P E R I O D

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c. 4500 – 3200 BCE Chalcolithic Period. Predynastic Period, ca. 4500-3200 BC Badarian,   ca. 4500-3800 BC Naqada I,   ca. 3850-3650 BC Naqada II,  ca. 3650-3300 BC Naqada III, ca. 3300-3100 BC 4,000 BCE World Population estimates = 7 – 25 million. Throughout most of its pre-dynastic history Egypt encompassed a multiplicity of settlements which gradually became small tribal kingdoms. These kingdoms evolved into two loosely confederated states: one encompassed the Nile valley up to the Delta (with the Naqada dominating) with Hierakonpolis as its capital, represented by the vulture goddess Nekhbet and the White Crown (hedjet); the other encompassed the Delta, with Buto as its capital and was represented by the cobra goddess Wadjet of Buto and the Red Crown (deshret). The two lands could also be represented as the combined Land of the Two Ladies (Nekhbet and Wadjet) and by the combined Double Crown (shmty). Horus (gd) was the son of the goddess Hathor and the god of Hierakonpolis in upper Egypt. The two kingdoms vied for power over all the land of Egypt. This struggle led to the victory of the south and the unification of the Two Lands in approx. 3100BC under the command of Menes who is also sometimes known as Narmer. This was the beginning of the dynastic period of the Pharaohs. Here is a map of Lower Egypt (see J. Nicols course description at the University of Oregon) from a later period with the most prominent cites and branches of the Nile River, for reference. Here are the maps of the 22 Nomes of Upper Egypt and the 20 Nomes of Lower Egypt for reference. These probably find their identities in the pre-history of Egypt before unification in the pharaonic period. Dominant families of the Nomes maintained considerable power in their regions even after the unification. In some nomes the priestly class of one or more temple cults held or shared most of the political power in the region. During some periods the continued unification of Egypt depended heavily on the cooperation and possibly even the consent of these regional powers. Her is a map of Egypt with most of the major cities for reference. c. 3580 BCE Mt Vesuvius erupts (Too early yet for dendrochronology to pinpoint, unfortunately). Ghassulian culture in Palestine. 3500 BCE The Egyptian Civil Calendar and the Great Sothic Cycle. See More Details about the Great Sothic Cycle in a separate browser window. c. 3300 BCE Early Bronze urban culture in Palestine.

C H A L C O L I T H I C P E R I O D

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c. 3200 – 2200 BCE Early Bronze Age. End of the Pre-Dynasty Period. See More Details about the Pre-Dynastic Period in a separate browser window. c. 3020 – 2650 BCE 0th Dynasty (3020 – 2920) See More Details about the 0th Dynasty in a separate browser window. The earliest hieroglyphs appear at about the beginning of the pharaonic age. See More Details about the five names of the pharaohs in a separate browser window. 3,000 BCE World Population estimates = 14 – 42 million.With the beginning of the Bronze age, the baby boom really got underway. The tools for conquest, a growing population of fighters, and agricultural methods capable of supporting large cities worth conquering were all combining to play their roles. It is probably no accident that the events of world history start to leave their traces in the form of written records at about this time. Writing had to be invented in order to manage the governments with rapidly expanding populations and to handle the logistics of the wars they inflicted on each other. c. 2900 – 2800 BCE 365-day calendar introduced. See More Details about the Egyptian 365 Day Calendar in a separate browser window. c. 2900 BCE Egyptian hieroglyphs’ first appearance, other than for naming kings, I presume. c. 2920 BCE 1st Dynasty (2920 – 2770) This period is shrouded in mythology. Little is known of Menes and his descendants outside their claim of divine ancestry and that they developed a complex social system, patronized the arts and constructed temples and many public buildings.The foundation of Memphis, the world’s first imperial city, is attributed to Menes. From Memphis the third and fifth kings of the First Dynasty set out to conquer the Sinai. During the First Dynasty culture became increasingly refined. The royal burial grounds at Saqqara and Abydos became sites of highly developed mastabas. Hor-Aha (”The Fighting Hawk”) (Ivory label found in the tomb of Queen Nithotep with the two names Hor-Aha and Men in the upper right. The Horus falcon on top of one serekh faces to the right. This label must be read right to left making Men the more important name.) (The Horus-name of Aha, from a piece of pottery at the British Museum.) Men (nebti name) Aha’s more common name, Men (from Herodotus according to Manetho), means “established.” This may be the source of the name Menes (M and TRC) attributed to the first pharaoh in later records. Probably the son of Narmer, possibly by Queen Nithotep. His Horus name of Hor-Aha means “fighting hawk” and indicates his Upper Egyptian origin. The use of the name Men as his nebti name as ruler of the combined Kingdoms is demonstrated by the appearance of both names, side by side, on an ivory label found in the tomb of Queen Nithotep. One of Hor-Aha’s major accomplishment was founding the capital city Memphis. It’s location, just south of the apex of the Nile Delta, indicates the importance this geographical and political center played in uniting and maintaining the combined kingdoms. Memphis became one of the greatest cities in the ancient world. Beginning with the founding of Memphis, the Egyptian kings began to construct their tombs at the sacred site of Abydos in Middle Egypt, while the nobility constructed theirs at Saqqara on the edge of the desert plateau overlooking Memphis. There is contention about whether or not the kings built at both sites. His Queen may have been named Berner-Ib (literally “Sweet-heart”). Her name appears on a small label found in a tomb near his at Abydos. Her name also appeared on items from his possible-mother’s great tomb at Naqada. His mother or a wife (possibly his principle wife), named Neithhotep is also known and is shown wearing the the red crown of Lower Egypt. It seems clear that he also has roots in Upper Egypt as well as lower Egypt, either by birth or by marriage, and that most of Egypt was united under his rule. Manetho reports that he fought foreign expeditions and won renown, but was killed when carried off by a hippopotamus. Manetho lists his as a 62 year reign while the TRC lists no reign length. Iti (TRC) Simply listed in the TRC as “The King of [Upper and Lo]wer Egypt It[i]“. Could this be Neithhotep, the queen of Aha listed as a ruler in her own right? It could also be a son or brother who served as co-regent but did not survive the end of Aha’s reign. This king appears not to be part of Manetho’s list, unless it is Kenkenes, or Queen Neith-hotep, and the Canon does not give a reign length. Djer (”Horus Who Succours”) Djer is probably Manetho’s Athothis (M), the son of Menes (M), and the Canon’s Iteti (TRC), credited with a 57 year reign (M) or a reign of 10+X years, 28 days (TRC). His Horus name is consistent with Manetho’s comment that he was a physician whose anatomical works were extant at the time Aegyptiaca was composed. Manetho also credits him with building a (the?) royal palace for himself at Memphis. Merneith (Beloved of Neith) (Queen Merneith’s stela from Abydos.) Merneith was Queen, consort of Djer, and may have ruled alone for a time after his death. Alternatively, she may have ruled only as regent during the minority of her son Den. Finally, she might have ruled during both periods. She is the first recorded female pharaoh of Egypt. Manetho does not appear to mention her, although it is interesting that he does list eight pharaohs and this dynasty includes eight if she is included. The Canon does not mention her. Her name appears on a clay seal impression from Abydos that gives the names of the early kings in order from Narmer to Den. This confirms her status as ruler and gives her the title “King’s Mother”, presumably of Den. The remaining six names in Manetho’s list are difficult to assign to the remaining known pharaohs. Remembering that the first two might need to be reversed, and including Mereneith, the simplest pairings go like this (with source comparisons of the pharaonic names and reign lenghts): A modern Manetho's Manetho's Manetho's list of pharaohs pharoahs pharaohs pharaonic (Africanus) (Eusebius (Eusebius, names from Syncellus) Armenian ver) ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Narmer Hor-Aha Menes 62 Menes 60 y Menes 30 Iti Djer Athothis 57 Athothis 27 " Athothis 27 Mereneith Kenkenes 31 Kenkenes 39 " Cencenes 39 Djet Uenephes 23 Uenephes 42 " Vavenephis 42 Den Usaphaidos 20 Usaphais 20 " Usaphais 20 Anedjib Miebidos 26 Niebais 26 " Niebais 26 Semerkhet Semempses 18 Semempses 18 " Mempses 18 Qa'a Bieneches 26 Ubienthes 26 " Vibenthis 26 Assuming that Manetho meant to leave Mereneith off the list, if he even knew of her, then either we are missing a pharaoh or Manetho is simply wrong. Most assume the latter, but perhaps evidence for a missing pharaoh will yet be found. One alternative is to put Narmer back into the First Dynasty, take out Merneith, and then assign Manetho’s full list in order, something like this (though this is hardly likely to be the final answer): A modern Manetho's TRC Early Egyptologists list of pharaohs pharoahs recognized only pharaohs these 6 pharoahs ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Narmer Menes Menes xx y Menes Hor-Aha (Men) Iti Kenkenes Iti Atoti I Djer Athothis Iteti Atoti II Merneith Djet Uenephes Itiui Atoti III Den Usaphaidos Semti Usaphais Anedjib Miebidos Merbiapen Miebis Semerkhet Semempses Semsem Qa'a Bieneches Kebehu Usaphaidos and Kenkenes are thought by some to be two names for the same pharaoh. Djet (”Horus Cobra”) (Djet’s stone stela from Abydos.) Louvre Collection Also known as Uadji or Wadj, or Itiui ( TRC). Possibly Manetho’s Uenephes (M) with a reign length of 42 years. The Canon does not give a reign length. His is Tomb Z at Abydos. His funery stela is one of the finest early works of sculpture known and now resides in the Louvre. Manetho reports that during his reign a famine seized the land, and that he built the pyramids near Kachome (Cho – Eusebius Armenian version). Den (”Horus who Strikes”) (Ivory label of Den from Abydos.) Also known as Udimu or Semti (TRC). Possibly Manetho’s Usaphaidos and/or Kenkenes. His Throne Name was Semti (TRC), titled King of the Two Lands (nsw-bt). Den has been identified with a king from the Abydos King List named Hesepti. This name can then be identified via the Canon’s Semti with Manetho’s Usaphaidos who reigned for 20 years. The Canon does not give a reign length. The Palermo Stone appears to record the last 14 years of his reign, though the king’s name is missing. Assigning the subsequent records on the Palermo Stone to the reigns of his successors depends entirely on the validity of this particular correlation. Their names and order of reigns, on the other hand, are known with more certainty because they appear in an inscription on a stone vase from the galleries beneath the step pyramid at Saqqara. This sequence of rulers has also been confirmed by a list given on a clay seal from Abydos. His chancellor was Hemaka, whose tomb at Saqqara (no. 3035) was originally assigned to Den. This tomb was excavated by W. B. Emery in 1935. Emery also examined a large tomb at Giza which, based on architectural similarity, he considered likely to be that of Den’s Queen. Her name is unknown. Anedjib (”Safe is His Heart”) If we identify Anedjib as Manetho’s Miebidos (26 years) or as Merbiapen (74 years, TRC). In the Canon the year symbol and the number are both clear, but what is not clear is whether this refers to the reign or lifetime. In all these early pharaohs, the Canon could be referring to age at death. This seems especially likely since most of them are so long. They could also be mythic reign lengths. He is recorded on the Saqqara King List as a Thinite King (and assumed, therefore, to be from This). There seems to be some unspecified evidence for struggle between north and south. His tomb at Abydos is among the smallest and worst built of the royal tombs. Semerkhet (”Thoughtful Friend”) Semerkhet ruled for 9 years according to the Palermo Stone, or 18 years according to Manetho; as Semempsis (M), or for 72 (reign? or lifetime?) years as Semsem (TRC). It has been suggested the he was a usurper of Anedjib’s throne. He erased the name of his predecessor from many stone vases where it should have appeared below Semerkhet’s and Semerkhet himself was omitted from the Saqqara King List. Manetho reports that during his reign there were many portents and that a very great calamity (a “pestilence” in Eusebius’ Armenian version) befell Egypt. Qa’a or Kaa (”His Arm is Raised”) (Qa’a wearing the white crown of the south and embraced by falcon-headed Horus.) Louvre Museum. He may have reigned for 26 years (M). The uncertainty arises because Manetho lists Bieneches as the last king of this dynasty. That hardly equates to Qa’a in any known linguistic sense. He is also known as Kebehu who ruled for 63 years ( TRC). The Canon uses a large dot (sometimes translated as idem) apparently to indicate a repeat of the symbol for “years” above, but it is still not clear if this should be read as reign length or lifetime. Two fragmented stele were found by Petrie on the east side of his tomb at Abydos bearing his full Horus name in a serekh. A stela of his, now in the Louvre, assumed to be from Abydos as well, shows him wearing the white crown of the south and embraced by falcon-headed Horus. The white crown also forms part of his name (Qa’a-hedjet) in the serekh above the heads of the two figures. This has been taken by some as a symbol of the final victory of Upper Egypt over Lower Egypt during his reign. c. 2800 – 2360 BCE Sumarian (Persian) city states formed along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. c. 2770 BCE 2nd Dynasty (2770 – 2650) Hetepsekhemwy = Boethos (M) 38 years  Reneb = Kaiechos (M) 39 "  Nynetjer = Binothris (M) 47 "  Seth-Peribsen = Tlas (M) 19 "  = Sethenes (M) 41 "  = Chaires (M) 17 "  = Nephercheres (M) 25 "  (Khasekhem?) = Sesokhris (M) 48 "  Khasekhemwy = Huzefa (M) 30 " The Second Dynasty was characterized by regional disputes and a decentralization of Pharaonic authority, a process which was only temporarily halted by the Pharaoh Raneb. These regional contentions were very likely the outcome of the unresolved conflict between the two deities Horus in the south and Seth in the Delta. Theistic rivalry seems to have been resolved by Khasekhem, the last Pharaoh of the Second Dynasty.Unusual for a change of dynasty, these kings are also said to be from This (or Thinis in some renditions), near Abydos, and are called Thinite Kings by Manetho. He lists nine 2nd Dynasty Pharaohs which are assigned to the known five (or six) as follows: There is no archeological evidence for the other three (or four in those versions which hold that Khasekhem and Khasekhemwy are the same person) pharaohs on Manetho’s list.Since it appears that Khasekhemwy is the son of Seth-Peribsen, he would have been at least 53 before becoming pharaoh if his predecessor ruled for 48 years, but there is then no room for the three missing pharaohs to fit into his one lifetime if all reigns are consecutive. The three missing pharaohs might be reconciled if there were overlapping rules in different parts of the country. If so, the secession was allowed to continue for a surprisingly long time. On the other hand, these three may have been priestly claimants to the religious authority of the pharaoh who also took the pharonic title, at least in the priestly records consulted by Manetho. Some hint of such a struggle appears in the fact that Sekhemib dropped his Horus name in favor of a Seth name. Perhaps this indicates that the followers of Seth seized the upper hand in a religious struggle during his reign. Significantly, Khasekhemwy’s serekh is topped by both the Horus-bird and the Seth-animal, indicating, perhaps, a reuniting of the two contending parties in his reign. Hetepsekhemwy (”Pleasing in Powers”) His name is sometimes spelled Hotepsekhemwi. Also known as Baw-netjer (TRC) who ruled for 95 years. Again the Canon uses the idem to indicate a repeat of the year without clarifying the reign or lifetime question. Reneb (”Re is the Lord”) Also known as Kakaw (TRC), but the Canon doesn’t include any year formula for this pharaoh. Nynetjer (”Godlike”) Also known as Banetjer (TRC) who ruled for 95 years. The idem is missing or unreadable in the Canon and the reign lenght versus lifetime question remains unanswered. Seth-Peribsen (Seth name “Hope of all Hearts”) He came to the throne with the Horus name Sekhemib (”Powerful in Heart”). A lacuna in the Canon has been been partially read as the sign for the sound “s”, which some have taken as an indication that the name Wadjnes is missing. This name is known from other king lists and is assumed by some to be another name for Seth-Peribsen/Sekhemib. In the Canon the number of years looks like 54 to me, and no idem is legible, so the question of reign length versus lifetime remains open. Sethenes (M) Also known as Sened (TRC). He is listed as having a reign of either 41 years (M) or 70 years (TRC), and the question of reign length vesus lifetime is still unanswered. He is not known from any contemporary source. Nephercheres (M) Aaka (?) (TRC), although some have interpreted this as an error in the Canon which should either Neferka or Ankhka. His reign length if he is Manetho’s Neferkheres is listed as 25 years (M). The Canon does not mention a reign length for this pharaoh. He is not known from any contemporary source. Sesokhris (M) Neferkasokar (TRC) with a reign length of either 46 years (M) or 8 years 3 months (TRC). The idem appears twice in the Canon, once on either side of the “3″, implying that, originaaly, the numbers of days or his lifetime might have been included or intended next. Not known from any contemporary source. (Khasekhem(?) or possibly, but not necessarily very likely, Manetho’s Chaires in a different order. The Canon scribe wrote “Erased” (TRC) for the name when he could not read it on the original document he was consulting. Depending on how it should be read, the reign length is probably either 1 year, 8 months, 4 days (TRC) or 8 years 4 months (TRC). The inclusion of his life time, listed as 34 years, is based on the same formula being used for Djoser a couple of lines later. Khasekhemwy (Horus/Seth name: “The Two Powerful Ones appear”) Also known as Bebti (TRC) with a reign length of 27 years, 2 months, 1 day, (TRC), and his age given as 40 + x years (TRC). Inclusion of his age is based on the same formula used in the (TRC) for Djoser a couple of lines later, but is indicated here only by the use of what is assumed to be a repetition mark. He apparently married a northern princess named Nemathap, who is titled “The King-bearing Mother”, in order to cement the two kingdoms. She is considered the founding mother of the following 3rd Dynasty. c. 2650 BCE OLD KINGDOM (2650 – 2152) The age of Pyramid builders. The pyramids of Giza and Dahshur were built during this period. Some date this era to the beginning of the 2nd Dynasty. 3rd Dynasty (2650 – 2575) Use of the cartouche to enclose royal names first appears during this dynasty. The Turin Royal Canon also uses the cartouche for the earlier names, however, since it was clearly written at a much later period, those cartouches are merely updated versions of the orginal serekh based names. Sanakhte (”Strong Protection”) Also known as Nebka (2650 – 2630) Netjerikhet (”Divine of the Body”) Step Pyramid complex of King Djoser at Sakkara Also known as Djoser (Zoser)or Djoser-it ( TRC)(2630 – 2611) Step pyramid at Sakkara (Imhotep was his architect) At right is the life-size statue of Djoser found in the serdab of his pyramid complex. Cairo Museum. Sekhemkhet (”Powerful in Body”) Also known as Djoser Teti (2611 – 2603) Khaba (”The Soul Appears”) (2603 – 2599) Huni (”The Smiter”) (2599 – 2575) Huni may have been the pharaoh responsible for starting, if not also finishing, the Pyramid at Meidum. Snefru is usually credited with building three pyramids, including this one, but there are doubts that one pharaoh built all three. No pharaoh was every buried in the pyramid, apparently. The surrounding temple complex, and presumably the pyramid itself seem to have survived until at least the 18th Dynasty based on a graffito at the site. c. 2575 BCE 4th Dynasty (2575 – 2467) Snefru (Birth name: “He of Beauty”) Also known as Sneferu, Snofru, Soris (M) (2575 – 2551). He was the son of Huni and minor wife Meresankh I. He married Hetepheres I (probably his half-sister by Huni and a more senior queen, who therefore carried the royal blood line, but whose name is unknown). This marriage was required in order to maintain the matrilineal line of descent. Anyone else who might have married her would have had a better claim to their father’s throne than Snefru himself. (The Bent Pyramid of Snefru at Dashur) Khufu (Birth name: “Protected by [Khnum]“) Also known as Cheops/Kheops (Greek), Suphis I (M) (2551 – 2528). Son of Snefru and Hetepheres I. Great Pyramid at Giza (The Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza) Djedefre (Birth name: “Enduring like Re”) Also known as Djedefra, Redjedef, Radjedef (2528 – 2520) Khafre (Birth name: “Appearing like Re”) Also known as Khafra, Rakhaef, Chephren/Khephren (Greek), Suphis II (M) (2520 – 2494) Second Pyramid at Giza and Sphinx Menkaure (Birth name: “Eternal like the Souls of Re”) Also known as Menkaura, Mycerinus/Mykerinus (Greek), Mencheres (M) (2490 – 2472) Third Pyramid at Giza At right is the slate triad of Menkaure wearing the white crown, flanked by the goddess Hathor, with the sun’s disk and cow’s horns headress, and by the personification of the Hathor name, with her nome sign on her head. Both ladies have the face of Menkaure’s queen, Khamerernebty II. Shepseskaf (Birth name: “His Soul is Noble”) (2472 – 2467) c. 2500 – 2300 BCE Amorite invasions of Palestine. c. 2465 BCE 5th Dynasty (2465 – 2323) Userkaf Userkaf (2465 – 2458) Sahure Sahure (2458 – 2446) Neferirkare Neferirkare Kakai (2446 – 2426) Shepseskare Shepseskare Ini (2426 – 2419) Neferefre Raneferef (2419 – 2416) Niuserre Niuserre Izi (2416 – 2392) Menkauhor Menkauhor (2396 – 2388) Djedkare Djedkare Izezi (2388 – 2356) Unas Wenis (2356 – 2323)

E A R L Y B R O N Z E A G E I-III

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c. 2360 BCE Beginning of the Akkadian Empire (Persia). Sargon I (2360-2305 BCE) of Akkad. Approximate beginning of the Early Bronze Age IV (2300-2100 BCE). c. 2354 – 2345 BCE Possibly the oldest dendrochronolically dated eruption, Hekla 4 in Iceland. There is some speculation about this eruption’s possible role in sparking the beginnings of the Bronze Age, coming, possibly only coincidentaly, as it does so close to the beginning of that age as determined by other methods. The whole topic area of the effects of climate on tree ring growth and the inverse problem of estimating climate from ancient tree rings data are widely discussed, as one summary essay suggests. 2350 – 2075 Some evidence suggests that this was a period of extreme climate change in which a drying climate caused major population shifts along with the drought-like conditions evidenced throughout Western Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, and North Africa. It is further suggested that this climate change sparked the end of the Early Bronze Age. Dropping lake levels, including a large decrease in the Nile flood, may have caused to the turbulant political situation which produced the First Intermediate Period in Egypt. The return to a more normal climate at around 2000-1900 is then used to explain the return to the more stable political organization that marked the appearance of the Middle Kingdom.This may have occurred in two phases. The first, around 2350, may have induced some early problems which were not by themselves so devastating. The second phase, from about 2200 to 2000, may have been much more severe. c. 2323 BCE 6th Dynasty (2323 – 2152) Teti Teti (2323 – 2291) Pepi I Pepy I (Meryre) (2289 – 2255) Merenre Merenre Nemtyemzaf (2255 – 2246) Pepi II Pepy II (Neferkare) (2246 – 2152) Some sources mention two more pharoahs at the end of this Dynasty. Merenre II Probably the son of Pepi II and Neith. Queen Nitocris Thought to be the wife of Merenre II. Manetho describes her as braver than all the men of her time, the most beautiful of all women, with fair skin and red cheeks. No archaeological evidence for her reign has been found, nor for Herodotus’ story that she avenged the assasination of her brother (Teti I?) by tricking the murders into drowning before herself commiting suicide. The Turin Royal Canon, in column IV , lines 16 to 17, has been interpreted as reading that this dynasty ended 955 years, 10 days after the beginning of Menes reign, which is a bit off from the 769 years given in this chronology.

E A R L Y B R O N Z E A G E IV

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c. 2150 BCE FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (2150 – 1986) This was a very turbulent period. The centralized government collapsed. Many pharaohs claimed overlapping parts of Egypt and had overlapping reigns. Mentuhotep I (sometimes mistakenly referred to Mentuhotep II) eventually imposed order in 1986 BCE and established his capital at Thebes, thereby reuniting the thrones of Upper and Lower Egypt. 7th and 8th Dynasties (2150 – 2135) Wadjkare Qakare Iby c. 2135 BCE 9th and 10th Dynasties (2135 – 1986) (Herakleopolitan) Approximate beginning of the Middle Bronze Age I (2100-1900 BCE). Meryibre Khety Merykare Kanrferre Nebkaure Akhtoy c. 2080 BCE 11th Dynasty (2080 – 1986) (Theban) Mostly Theban nomarks until the victory of Mentuhotep I over the northern monarchs (9th and 10th Dynasties) who ruled from the Faiyum. His victory in 1986 and the resultant reunification of the two lands marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom (1986 – 1937). Intef I or Inyotef Sehertawy (2080 – 2064) Intef II or Inyotef Wahankh (2064 – 2015) Intef III or Inyotef Nakhjtnebtepnefer (2015 – 2007) Mentuhotep I Nebhetepre (2007 – 1986) 2,000 BCE World Population estimates = 27 – 67 million. In the first half of this millennium begins the oral tradition surrounding Abraham and the sojourn in Egypt. The solar calendar is developed and adopted in Egypt. c. 1986 BCE MIDDLE KINGDOM (1986 – 1759) This period is characterized by extensive international commerce and enormous building projects. The era is also known for its refinement in jewelry design. Economic prosperity and an artistic renaissance persisted for a long time until Egypt was again, eventually, wracked by internal problems.Mentuhotep I reunited Egypt by overthrowing his 10th Dynasty rivals. 11th Dynasty (1986 – 1937), continuation Mentuhotep I Nebhetepre (1986 – 1956) following his victory over the northern 9th and 10th Dynasties Mentuhotep II Sakhkare (1956 – 1944) Mentuhotep III Nebtawyre (1944 – 1937) c. 1950 BCE Fall of Ur.

M I D D L E B R O N Z E A G E I

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c. 1937 BCE 12th Dynasty (1937 – 1759) Beginning of Middle Bronze Age II A (1900-1700 BCE). Amenemhet I Amenemhat I (Sehetepibre) (1937 – 1908) Reunited Egypt by overthrowing his 10th Dynasty rivals. Senusret I Sesostris I Senwosret I (Kheperkare) (1917 – 1872) Amenemhet II Amenemhat II (Nubkaure) (1875 – 1840) Senusret II Senwosret II (Khakheperre)> (1842 – 1836) Senusret III Sesostris III Senwosret III (Khakaure) (1836 – 1817) A comparison of the face at left with the face on his seated statue in the Louvre (at right) suggests that these provide a very good likeness of the man himself. The heavy lidded eyes and the size and shape of the ears plus the overall shape and expression of the face show remarkable artistic attention to detail and presumably to accuracy. Amenemhet III Amenemhat III (Nimaatre) (1817 – 1772), He is also called King Moeris by Herodotus; built Nile-flood catchment at Faiyum and Labyrinth at Hawara. (Statuette of Amenemhat III – Louvre Collection) Amenemhet IV Amenemhat IV (Maakherure) (1772 – 1763) Queen Sobeknerfu Neferusobek (Sobekkare) (1763 – 1759) c. 1850 BCE Abraham leaves Mesopotamia for Canaan (Gen 12).c. 1759 BCE SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1759 – 1539) Egypt is disorganized and weak, possibly due to a famine. The Hyksos conquer Egypt. Eventually, the Theban princes recover their power. Kamose finally defeats the Hyksos. My sources show many internal inconsisencies both about how many pharaohs ruled and their names, as well as when they ruled and what parts of the country they controlled. This is definitely a messy period to sort out. This work is an attempt to put together the most consistent version possible. Perhaps the most one should hope to settle about the the Second Intermediate Period is how long it lasted and not worry too much about the details of the various pharaohs’ reigns. 13th Dynasty (1759 – c.1621) Some believe this dynasty begins with 21 pharaohs over 63 years (1759 – 1696), although the number of pharaohs and the time span are both in dispute. Some of these may have been only regional chieftains. Many of the names are not known from any monumental inscriptions; some only from scarabs. The 14th Dynasty overlaps the latter part of the 13th, and there may be, for any given pharaoh, some question of where each should be placed. Here we begin with Wegef. After that it gets a little messy. Khutawyre (Throne name: “Re Protects the Two Lands”) Wegaf (1759 – 1755) (Birth name) Sankhibre (Throne name: “The Heart of Re Lives”) Ameny Intef IV Amenemhet V (? – 1736) Also known as Ameny Intef (Birth name, “Amun is at the Head”) Auyibre (Throne name: “Re Succours the Heart”) Hor (c. 1736) (Birth name) Ruled for a few months. He was buried at Dashur. Sekhemre Khutawy (Throne name: “Powerful is Re, Protector of the Two Lands”) Amenemhet VI Sobekhotep II (c. 1726) (Birth name: “Amun is at the Head, Pleasing to the god Sobek”). Also known as Sebekhotpe II. He was probably buried at Dashur. Userkare (Throne name: “The Soul of Re is Powerful”) Khendjer (c. 1723) (Birth name) Buried at the Pyramid, South Saqqara. Sekhemre Sewadjtawy (Throne name: “Powerful is Re, He makes the Two Lands Flourish”) Sobekhotep III (c. 1721) (Birth name: “Pleasing to the god Sobek”) The time span between the inferred date for Sobekhotep III and the reign of  Neferhotep I ranges from 4 to 25 years. ————— The “mini-dynasty” ————— begins with the reigns of three brothers. Khasekhemre (Throne name: “Beautiful is the Soul of Re”) Neferhotep I (1696 – 1685) (Birth name: “Beautiful and Pleasing”). Also known as Neferhotpe I. Sihathor (1685 – 1685) This brother may not have had an independent reign of his own, he may only have reigned as co-regenent with one or both of his brothers. Khaneferre (Throne name: “Beautiful is the Soul of Re”) Sobekhotep IV (1685 – 1678) (Birth name: “Pleasing to the god Sobek”) Sobekhotep V (1678 – 1674) (Birth name: “Pleasing to the god Sobek”) I have some concern that this is really Sobekhotep IV, not a separate king. Iaib (1674 – 1664) Merneferre (Throne name: “Beautiful is the Desire of Re”) Ay (1664 – 1641) (Birth name) Also known as Aya. ————— End of “mini-dynasty” ————— 9 kings in approx. 20 years (1641 – c.1621), including the one mentioned here. Neferhotep II

M I D D L E B R O N Z E A G E IIA

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c. 1728 BCE Hammurabi (1728 – 1686 BCE), of the Old Babylonian Empire. c. 1720 – 1550 BCE The Hyksos Invaders from Asia, conquer parts of Egypt, staying mostly in the Delta but also venturing further south at times.. This seems to be 100 years too soon for those of us using the lower chronology, ie most recent chronology, which tends to pull most events toward the modern era. c. 1700 BCE Jacob and twelve of his sons settle in Egypt (Gen 46). Beginning of Middle Bronze Age II B (1700-1600 BCE). c. 1650 BCE Construction of the fortress/temple of Baal-berith at Shechem. Probable scene of Joshua’s subsequent covenant (Joshua 9:4f.). c. 1628 BCE Eruption of Thera/Santorini (radiocarbon date: 1640±30; consensus date: 1680-1670); 1628-26 confirmed by dendrochronology (bristlecone pine tree ring dates) of growth ring damage from frosts correlated to major eruptions during the past 5,500 years. This appears to be 200 years too soon to explain the demise of the Minoan society on Crete. There is no known earthquake candidate for that time so a tidal wave related to a volcanic event seems to be ruled out; unless the Minoan date is revised back to the correct time of the Thera eruption. Crete was certainly effected by this eruption, but whether or not the Empire was destroyed by it is again an open question.Interestingly, studies of tree rings in the Near East also show an event at exactly same time. There the effect of expected increases in cloud cover and soil moisture had the predictable effect of spurring rings of increased thickness due to enhanced growing conditions. c. 1621 BCE 14th Dynasty (? – c.1621) Manetho’s 14th Dynasty may have ruled just one of several delta-kingdoms thought to have arisen during the Second Intermediate Period; this line of “Pharaohs” may have ruled from Avaris (Auaris) in the eastern-delta region.76 (?) minor rulers of the delta; contemporary with the second-half 13th Dynasty Nehesy 15th Dynasty (1633 – 1625) Manetho calls this Dynasty “Hyksos” — ’shepherd-kings.’The Hyksos drive the native Pharaohs south as far as Thebes and retain the whole of Lower (northern) Egypt to themselves. The Hyksos rule from Avaris for at least a century before being driven out of the Nile Valley and trapped at Avaris by the Theban 17th Dynasty. Then the Hyksos are pushed out of the Delta by Ahmose. His three year siege of their last remaining stronghold at Shjaruhen, near Gaza, drives the Hyksos completely out of Egypt. Ahmose and his successors chased them into and through the Levant. Sheshi Yakubber Khyan Apepi I Apepi II Salitis (Shalek?) Bnon Apachnan (Khyan) Iannas (Iannassi son of Khyan) Apophis (Auserre Apepi) Assis (Khamudy?)

M I D D L E B R O N Z E A G E IIB

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16th Dynasty 32 minor ‘Hyksos’ (?) kings contemporary with the 15th & 17th Dynasties. Anather Yakobaam 17th Dynasty (1606 – 1539) 15 Theban Pharaohs. Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Intef VII Tao I Tao II Kamose Tao I (Senakhtenre) Tao II (Sekenenre) Kamose (Wadjkheperre) (? – 1539) c. 1550 BCE Traditional dating for the destruction of Jericho (Middle Bronze II C – 1600-1550 BCE). See also 1400 BCE for an alternative dating.

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c. 1539 BCE NEW KINGDOM (1539 – 1069) The victory of the teenage King Ahmose over the Hyksos signaled the beginning of the New Kingdom in Egypt. Following the expulsion of the invaders, Egypt began a rapid expansion of its military power and cast a watchful eye far from its immediate borders. It also began to exercise control over its immediate neighborhood, including the incorporation of a large northern kingdom in Palestine and Syria. This became the buffer zone between Egypt and anyone who would attempt to conquer it again. Failure to maintain this buffer zone opened up the opportunity exploited by the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 671 when he attacked Egypt. Seven years later in 664 his successor, Ashurbanipal, sacked Thebes and Egypt was again a captive nation. Approximate beginning of the Late Bronze Age I (1550-1400 BCE).Prosperity and revivals in the arts and building projects hallmark the beginning of this period. Towards the end of the 19th Dynasty the power of the priesthood corrupted the central government. During the 20th Dynasty even the officials were robbing tombs. The priesthood became hereditary and began to assume considerable secular power. The government eventually broke down. The foundation of the New Kingdom is usually viewed as marking the end of the Middle Bronze Age (2100-1550 BCE) in Canaan, though there has been controversy on this point. 18th Dynasty (1539 – 1295) Thebans in this Dynasty were directly descended from the 17th Dynasty and wore the dual crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. Ahmose I Ahmose (Nebpehtyre) (1539 – 1514) Amenhotep I Amenhotep I (Djeserkare) (1514 – 1493) Tuthmosis I Thutmose I (Akheperkare) (1493 – 1481) Tuthmosis II Thutmose II (Akheperenre) (1481 – 1479) Queen Hatshepsut Hatshepsut (Maatkare) (1473 – 1458) Not the first female Pharaoh. She named herself senior co-regent on the death of her husband. She was powerful enough to prevent his son, her nephew,  from exercising his power for about half of his nominal reign (his age 7 to 21 during the regency years), plus after her co-regency ended, her supporters marginalized the boy-king’s power until after her death. The Battle of Megiddo. may have taken place during her half of the reign. No one knows what happened to her. Thutmose III eventually gained control over Egypt and when he did he took steps to completely obliterate her name from every monument. Tuthmosis III Tuthmosis III Tuthmose III (Menkheperre) (1479 – 1425), the ‘Napoleon of Egypt’. (Relief of Tuthmosis III from Elephantine Island, Temple of Satis – Louvre Collection) Amenhotep II Amenhotep II (Akheperure) (1427 – 1392) Tuthmosis IV (Bust of Tuthmosis IV) Thutmose IV (Menkheperure) (1392 – 1382) Amenhotep III Amenhotep III (Nebmaatre) (1382 – 1344) Lion with the face of Amenhotep III and his chief wife Queen Tiye. She was either the mother or grandmother of Tutankhamun and possibly the mother or grandmother of Smenkhkare. Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) Pharaoh Akhnaton: Amenhotep IV (Painted limestone pair statuette of Akhenaten and Nerfertiti, Louvre Collection) Amenhotep IV (Neferkheperure) (1352 – 1336); [the new name Akhenaten ('spirit of the Aten') taken during 4th year of his reign.] He attempted to introduce monotheism into Egypt, overthrowing the traditional state religions of Egypt, and directly threatened the power of the entrenched priesthood. His successors took steps to completely obliterate his name from every monument. King And Queen with Children. Aknhaton and Family Worshipping Aton Nefertiti Painted Limestone Bust of Nefertiti Neferneferuaten (Ankhkheperure) (1341 – 1337)Dendrochronological dating of timbers from an Aegean shipwreck containing a gold scarab of Queen Nefertiti seem to show that she was queen by about 1316 BCE, or at least no later than a date between 1316 and the year the ship sank. This is based on the date when the most recently cut trees in the wreck were felled, ie 1316 BCE. This date is at least consistent with the reference chronology and doesn’t allow much wiggle room to lower the date below about 1300 BCE. Smenkhkare Smenkhkare (Ankhkheperure) (1337 – 1336) Tutankhamun Tutankhamun (Nebkheperure) (1336 – 1327); Younger brother, probably, of Akhenaten. He dies without heir. (Detail from the back rest of the throne of Tutankhamun) Ay Ay (Kheperkheperure) (1327 – 1323); a former official. Haremheb Horemheb (Djeserkheperure) (1323 – 1295), a former official. c. 1531 BCE Hittites sack Babylon. c. 1468 BCE Battle of Megiddo. c. 1450 BCE Sudden decline of the Minoan Empire on Crete.

L A T E B R O N Z E A G E I

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c. 1400 BCE Approximate beginning of the Late Bronze Age II A (1400-1300 BCE) in Israel. (I assume here that the archaeological ages apply uniformly throughout Egypt and the Levant, though it is possible that there are some regional differences that are not apparent to me. If there ever were such differences, by the time of the Middle Kingdom regional trade would be expected to have eliminated most of them.) c. 1400 BCE Palaces on Crete destroyed. c. 1400 BCE Bryant G. Wood’s still controversial proposed new dating for the destruction of Jericho (end of Late Bronze Age I 1550-1400 BCE). See also 1550 BCE above. c. 1370 – 1353 BCE Amarna Letters.

L A T E B R O N Z E A G E IIA

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c. Thirteenth Century BCE Rise of Assyria. Transparent glass appears in Egypt. Pen and ink writing on papyrus appears in Egypt. Approximate beginning of the Late Bronze Age II B (1300-1200 BCE). 13th – 11th Centuries BCE Increasing use of iron during the Late Bronze Age. c. 1295 BCE 19th Dynasty (1295 – 1186) or (1040 – 940) This is a military family hailing from the eastern delta, perhaps from the region of Avaris. They may have been the descendents of an Egyptian/Hyksos marriage. What is certain is that this Dynasty builds a capital and royal residence at Pi-Ramesse (’the estate of Ramesses’) over the site of the former Hyksos city of Avaris. Ramesses I Ramesses I (Menpehtyre) (1295 – 1294) Seti I Mummy of Seti I, the second king of the 19th Dynasty, the son of Ramesses I and Queen Sitre. Seti I (Menmaatre) (1294 – 1279) Seti I Ramesses II One of the colossi of Ramses II, son of King Seti I at Abu Simbel. Ramesses II (Usermaatre-setepenre) (1279 – 1213); father of over 100 children; also known as ‘Ramesses the Great’, ‘ruler of rulers’; King Sesostris (to Herodotus, not to be confused with 12 Dynasty pharaohs Sesostris I-III); and King Sesoosis (to Diodorus Siculus). Also known for the dedicatory stela to his father sometimes known as the Stela of Year 400. Note that if this was referring to year 400 of the Great Sothic Cycle, then Ramesses II would have ruled about the year 923 BCE, if the last cycle started in 1323 BCE, as suggested by the discussion above of De Die Natali composed by Censorinus in 238 AD. (Ramses II Smiting his Enemies) Merneptah Merenptah (Baenre-hotephirmaat) (1213 – 1203) Amenmesses Amenmesse (Menmire) (1203 – 1200) Seti II Seti II (Userkheperure-setepenre) (1200 – 1194) Siptah Siptah (Akhenre-setepenre) (1194 – 1188) Queen Twosret Tausert (Sitre-meritamun) (1188 – 1186) c. 1290 – 1250 BCE The Exodus, followed by the Israelite invasion of Palestine. Given the uncertainty, even in the Egyptian dates, it is difficult to determine which Pharaoh (or Pharaohs) oversaw the Exodus. Can we even say, for certain, that it took place during the 19th Dynasty; not the 18th or the 20th? (Exod 13-15) c. 1290 BCE Ramsses II (1290-1224 BCE or 1279-1212 BCE) Pharaoh of Egypt. He is the Pharaoh most directly responsible for obliterating the monuments, statuary, and memory of Amenhotep IV from the Egyptian landscape. c. 1280 BCE Siege of Troy. after c. 1250 BCE Joshua leads the conquest of Canaan (Josh 1-24). c. 1200 BCE End of the Bronze Age in Israel.

L A T E B R O N Z E A G E IIB

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c. 1200 BCE Start of the Trojan War. Approximate beginning of the Iron Age I A-B (1200-1000 BCE) in Israel. c. 1200 – 586 BCE The Iron Age in Israel. c. 1200 – 1030 BCE Time of the Judges: Israel is a twelve-tribe confederation (Judg 1-21). c. 1192 BCE Sack of Troy (or is it 1280, as above?) c. 1186 BCE 20th Dynasty (1186 – 1069) Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Setakht (Userkhaure-meryamun) (1186 – 1184) Ramesses III (Usermaatre-meryamun) (1184 – 1153) Ramesses IV (Hekamaatre-setepenamun) (1153 – 1147) Ramesses V (Usermaatre-sekheperenre) (1147 – 1143) Ramesses VI (Nebmaatre-meryamun) (1143 – 1136) Ramesses VII (Usermaatre-setepenre) (1136 – 1129) Ramesses VIII (Usermaatre-akhenamun) (1129 – 1126) Ramesses IX (Neferkare-setepenre) (1126 – 1108) Ramesses X (Khepermaatre-setepenre) (1108 – 1099) Ramesses XI (Menmaatre-setepenptah) (1099 – 1069) c. no later than 1175 – 1153 BCE Ramesses III, Pharaoh of Egypt. c. 1175 BCE The ‘Sea Peoples’ were moving out of the Aegean and Anatolian regions as a result of years of drought and poor harvests. Rameses III, according to the traditional interpretation, defeated the Sea Peoples (including the Philistines) in northern Phoenicia (Lebanon), settled at least some of the captives in Egyptian strongholds along the southern coast of Palestine, and thereby tightened his control of the coastal Palestinian plain. In the short term the captives were probably treated as hostages against the threat of attack by their kinsmen. Eventually, they would have come to treat their strongholds as home and would then serve as the local mercenary force in support of Egyptian interests in Palestine. Eventually, of course, the Philistines turned themselves into an army of conquest and threw out their Egyptian masters. c. 1115 BCE Tiglath-pileser I (1115-1078 BCE) of the Assyrians. c. 1070 BCE THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1070 – 715) or (1069 – 664) The capital moves from Tanis, to Libya, to Nubia, to Thebes, to Sais, and then back to Nubia and, finally, to Thebes. 21st Dynasty (1069 – 945) The Tanites who ruled from their new capital in the eastern delta, Tanis. Smendes I Smedes I (1070-1044) Amenemnisu Amenemnisu (1040) Psusennes I Psusennes I (1040-992) Amenemope Amenope (993-984) Osorkon the elder Osochor (984-978) Siamun Siamun (978-959) Psusennes II Psusennes II (959-945) The 21st Dynasty (1080 – 945) Theban High Priests The Theban High Priests were contemporaries of the Tanites and acknowledged their precedence in ruling the nation. Herihor Piankh Pinedjem I Masaherta Menkheperre Smendes II Pinedjem II Psusennes III (after 959) c. 1020 BCE Samuel anointed Saul (1 Sam 10) King of Israel (1020-1000 BCE). Saul’s kingdom was landlocked behind the Philistines along the southern coastline and behind the Sidonians/Phoenicians along the northern coast of The Great Sea. He did not control Jerusalem.

I R O N A G E IA & IB

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1,000 BCE World Population estimates = 50 – 100 million. c. 1000 BCE David (1000-961 BCE) defeats Saul and creates the Israelite empire. Jerusalem is its capital. (2 Sam 2-21; 1 King 2). c. 961 BCE Solomon, King of the Israelites (961-922 BCE). Builds his Temple in Jerusalem (1 Kings 3-11). c. 945 BCE 22nd Dynasty (945 – 712) Note that 23rd and 24th Dynasties overlap the 22nd, Sheshonq I Shoshenq I (945-924) Osorkon I (Block of Osorkon I Offering) Osorkon I (924-909) Sheshonq II Shoshenq II (?–883) Takelot I Takelot (909–?) Osorkon II Osorkon II (883-855) Takelot II Takelot II (860-835) Sheshonq III Shoshenq III (835-783) Pamai Pami (783-773) Sheshonq V Shoshenq IV (773-735) Osorkon IV Osorkon IV (735-712) Harsiese c. 950 BCE First Temple completed. Libyan dynasties in Egypt (950 – 710 BCE). c. 935 – 914 BCE Shishak, Pharaoh of Egypt.

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c. Around 922 to 918 BCE Israel divided into two kingdoms immediately after Solomon’s death. Beginning of the “Divided Kingdoms” of Judah ( the two-tribe southern state including Jerusalem and the Salt Sea {Dead Sea} and westward to the border with Philistia) and Israel (the ten-tribe northern state, including both sides of the Jordan River and the Sea of Chinnereth {Sea of Galilee} and westward to The Great Sea {Mediterranean Sea}) (1 Kings 12). Approximate beginning of the Iron Age II A-B (918-586 BCE). The Kings of Judah to the Fall of Jerusalem in 587 BCE The Kings of Israel to the Fall of Samaria in 721 BCE (The detailed time-frames provided in II Kings are inconsistent, and this appears to be just one of the biblical chronologies that could be constructed by making various assumptions about where the error occurs – assuming that the biblical chronologies are not totally erroneous, of course) Rehoboam (930-913) Jeroboam I (930-909) Abijah (912-910) Asa (910-869) Nadab (909-908) Baasha (908-885) Elah (885-884) Zimri (885-884) Tibni (884-880 Omri (880-873) Jehoshaphat (869-848) Ahab (873-853) Ahaziah (853-852) Jehoram (848-841) Joram (852-841) Ahaziah (841-841) Jehu (841-813) Athaliah (841-835) Joash (835-796) Jehoahaz (813-798) Amaziah (796-767) Jehoash (798-781) Uzziah (Azariah) (767-739) Jeroboam II (781-753) Zechariah (753-752) Shallum (752-752) Menahem (752-741) Pekahiah (741-739) Jotham (739-731) Pekah (739-731) Ahaz (731-715) Hoshea (731-722) Hezehiah (715-686) Manasseh (686-642) Amon (642-640) Josiah (640-609) Jehoahaz (609-609) Jehoaikim (609-598) Jehoiachin (598-597) Zedekiah (597-586) 900 BCE c. Ninth – Seventh Centuries BCE The Assyrian Empire at the zenith of its power. The list of limmus, Assyrian officials appointed to oversee the New Year’s festival each year and for whom the year was named, provide a precise chronology for this period because the lists survive and because one of the limmu is associated with a datable solar eclipse. Prominent Assyrian Kings: Asshurnasirpal II (883-859 BCE) Shalmaneser III (859-824 BCE) Adad-nirari III (807-782 BCE) Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 BCE) Shalmaneser IV(?) (727? BCE) son and successor of Tiglath-pileser III Sargon II (722-705 BCE) Sennacherib (incl. 701 BCE) Esarhaddon ……… Son and successor of Sennacherib; after Sennacherib was killed by two of Esarhaddon’s brothers, Adrammelich and Sharezer, while he was worshipping in his temple to the god Nisroch. Ashurbanapal (669-633 BCE) c.875 BCE Samaria founded. c. 828 BCE 23rd Dynasty (828 – 725) Pedibastet Sheshonq IV Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamon Iuput Nimlot Peftjauabastet Pedubaste I (828-803) Osorkon III (777-749) Peftjauwybast (740-725) c. 814 BCE Phoenicians found Carthage. 800 BCE Eighth or Seventh Century BCE Probable founding date for the earliest structure at Qumran. For some centuries thereafter it appears to have been abandoned. What it was, who built it and why are still mysteries. Land routes through Palestine did not, apparently, pass by Qumran. By hypothesis, however, water routes across the Dead Sea may have focused on Qumran (City of Salt) as their access point for goods and people moving into and out of Jerusalem, Jericho and other points west and north of the Dead Sea. Also, Qumran may at various time have been an important center for salt production and storage, and/or packaging for shipment throughout the region. c.776 BCE First Olympics. c. 753 BCE Legendary founding of Rome. c. mid-Eighth Century BCE The time of Amos and Hosea. 733 BCE Assyrian conquest of Dor. 732 BCE Fall of Damascus. c. 725 BCE 24th Dynasty (725 – 715) Tefnakht Bakenrenef Shepsesre Tefnakht I 725-720 Wahkare Bakenranef 720-715 c. 721 BCE Fall of the Israelite capitol of Samaria. Assyria conquers Israel; deports the population. Exile of Israel (2 Kings 17). Israel becomes a province of Assyria. 718 BCE Dendrochronolgy shows that logs used to build the the inner chamber of the Midas Mound Tumulus, a massive tomb in Gordian named for King Midas of the Phrygians, were cut in this year. c. 712 BCE LATE KINGDOM The Nubians eventually fall to the Assyrians. Later the Greeks help re-establish order. Another renaissance in the arts during the 25th Dynasty marks a revival of the Old Kingdom style. 25th Dynasty (712 – 664) The Nubians Piankhi Shabaka Shebitku Taharqa Tanutamun Shebaka (712-698) Shebitku (698-690) Taharqa (690-664) Tantamani (664-657) c. 701 BCE Sennacherib besieges Jerusalem (2 Kings 18-19) (Is 36-37). In the fourteenth year of the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah, he and Sennacherib of Assyria and Tirhakah of Kush/Egypt (also called King of Ethiopia) met in mutual conflict; thereby establishing the synchronicity of these three reigns. 700 BCE 676 BCE Treaty signed between King Esarhaddon of Assyria and King Baal of Tyre. Dor is described as a city on the southern frontier of Tyre and is ceded to the King of Tyre. c. 671 BCE Esarhaddon attacks Egypt beginning nearly 20 years of Assyrian rule and domination (671-652 BCE). 664 BCE Thebes sacked by Esarhaddon’s Assyrian successor, Ashurbanipal. 26th Dynasty (664 – 525) The Assyrians Psamtik I Nekau Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Psammetichus I (Psam-tik) (664-610) Necho II (610-595) Psammetichus II (595-592) Hophra (592-???) Apries (589-570) Amasis (570-526) Psammetichus III (526-525) c.Early to mid-Seventh Century BCE Time of Isaiah and Micah.Time of Homer or of the celebrity (possibly the first written version) of Homer’s works about a war fought 500 years earlier. c. 640 BCE Judah resurgence under Josiah. c. 621 BCE Book of Deuteronomy “discovered” (2 Kings 22-23). Josiah reforms Judah’s religion (2 Chron 34-35). c. late-Seventh Century BCE Time of Jeremiah. c. 612 BCE Fall of Nineveh to Medes and Babylonians. c. 609 BCE Pharoah Necho II, 26th Dynasty of Egypt, and leader of the most powerful military and trading empire of its day, marches north to support the struggling Assyrian Empire in its effort against the rising Babylonian Empire. As Egyptian forces pass near Megiddo, King Josiah of Judah, at the end of his 30 year reign, attacks and is defeated. Josiah dies of a battle wound and is succeeded by his anti-Egyptian, and therefore arguabley pro-Assyrian, son Jehoahaz. Jehoahaz has a very short reign. Necho II soon disposes of Jehoahaz and replaces him with his elder, pro-Egyptian, brother Jehoiakim as a vassal king of Egypt in Judah.Necho crosses the Euphrates in July to join forces with the Assyrians. Thereafter, Egypt controls the entire region all the way to the Euphrates river. (2 Kings 24:7) Judah’s brief interlude of independence, between periods of Assyrian and Egyptian control, comes to an end. c. 605 BCE Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BCE), the New Babylonian Empire. Nebuchadnezzar II was succeeded, according to new information interpreted from the scrolls by F. M. Cross, first by his son Nabonidus and then by his grandson Belshazzar. Stories about Nabonidus were revised during a period of oral tradition into stories about Nebuchadnezzar II. The reigns of Nabonidus and Belshazzar can span no more than the twenty three years between the death of Nebuchadnezzar II and the conquest of the New Babylonian Empire by Cyrus in 539 BCE.Upon gaining control of the Babylonian Empire, Nebuchadnezzar II’s first order of business was to attack the last Assyrian monarch Ashur-ubalit. Having been routed from their age old capital of Nineveh and then from Haran, the Assyrians made their final capital city at Carchemish, on the Euphrates, near the modern Turkish-Syrian border. Necho II’s troop were also at Carchemish in support of Assyria. The Egyptian army is utterly defeated at the Battle of Carchemish by the Babylonians. Syria and Palestine fall to the Babylonians. Failing to recognize the enormity of this sudden change in the political winds, Judah, still under the leadership of the pro-Egyptian Jehoiakim, sympathizes with Egypt, under the illusion that Egyptian could still project a strong military presence in the region, thereby ensuring future conflict with Babylon. Egypt cannot respond to the pleas of its former allies’ requests for aid against the Babylonians. c. 603 BCE Judah surrenders to Babylon during Nebuchadnezzar II’s sweep through Syria and Palestine. Despite his pro-Egyptian leanings, Jehoiakim wisely submits to Nebuchadnezzar II. (2 Kings 24:1) c. 601/600 BCE Babylon is defeated in its attack on Egypt’s Eastern Delta. Nebuchadnezzar II withdraws to Babylon for two years to rebuilt his army. Jehoiakim responds to the new political situation, and probably to his own political preference, and renews his allegiance with Egypt. Necho II campaigns in southern Palestine, in a mere appearance of a projection of military force, and attempts to built a new coalition against Babylon in the region. Most of the samll states in the region, including Judah, are fooled by the Egyptian front and eventually pay the price of siding with the weaker power, Egypt, against the stronger, Babylon. Palestine is filled with the ruins of cities which did not have the opportunity or the forsight to surrender as Jerusalem eventually did. Cities such as Ekron were utterly destroyed as recent excavation of the total destruction layer (Stratum 1B) have shown. 600 BCE c. 598 BCE Jehoiakim dies (possibly at the hands of his enemies, or even in a fratricidal coup) and is succeeded by his 18 year old son Jehoiachin. Late in the year Nebuchadnezzar strikes at Judah, which is now the friend of his enemy. c. 597 BCE Jerusalem surrenders to Babylon on March 16 (12 Adar). Appeased by Judah’s capitulation and by Jehoiakim removal from the scene, Nebuchadnezzar II orders that the city be spared. Nebuchadnezzar II sends Jehoiachin and thousands of other Judahites into exile and installs Jehoiachin’s uncle Zedekiah as a puppet king.The Territory of Benjamin may also have been taken at this time by Nebuchadnezzar II, although is it also possible that this did not occur until 589/588 BCE. c. 595 BCE Necho II dies and is succeeded by the very ambitious pharaoh, Psammetich II. c. 594/593 BCE Zedekiah, perhaps relying on news of an uprising in Babylon, convenes a mini-summit of neighboring states (Edom, Moab, Ammon, and the city states of the Phoenician coast) — probably to plan their own revolt against Babylon, whose defeat at the hands of Egypt in 601/600 BCE was still a fresh memory. This conspiracy, if that is what it was, came to a sudden end when Nebuchadnezzar II reenetered Palestine with his rebuilt army and received prompt reassurance of Judah’s continuing loyalty from Zedekiah. c. 592 BCE Pharaoh Psammetich II marches in Palestine and Phoenicia in response to moves made by Babylon and attempts to generate anti-Babylonian sentiments among the leaders of Judah, Philistia and Phoenicia. c. 590/589 BCE Zedekiah, possibly inspired by the appearance or promise of support from the new pharaoh Hophra, actively and openly rebels against Babylon. c. 589/588 BCE Nebuchadnezzar II, after some delay, responds to pharaoh Hophra’s initiatives, attacks Judah, and places Jerusalem under siege. The Territory of Benjamin and other territories also succumb to Nebuchadnezzar II’s attacks at this time. The siege of Jerusalem lasts up to 2-1/2 years, ending after famine takes its final terrible toll on the defenders. c. 586 BCE Babylon breaches the walls of Jerusalem in July. Zedekiah is captured trying to escape at night and is taken before Nebuchadnezzar II at Riblah. Nebuchadnezzar II blinds Zedekiah and sends him into exile in Babylon.

I R O N A G E IIA & IIB

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c. 586 BCE In August Nebuchadnezzar II destroys Jerusalem, razes and burns the Temple, and exiles all of Judah. He takes many Judahite as captives to Babylon (2 Kings 24).The Davidic Dynasty comes to an end. 586 – 538 BCE Babylonian Captivity. Time of Ezekiel. Approximate beginning of the Iron Age III (586-332 BCE) in Israel. 550 BCE Cyrus (550-530 BCE) of Persia. The Persian Empire under Cyrus eventually conquers and replaces the New Babylonian Empire. c. 539 BCE Babylon falls to Cyrus and the Persian Empire.

B a b y l o n i a n

P e r i o d

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538 BCE The Persian conquest of Babylon ends the exile. The Edict of Cyrus allows the exiles to return to Palestine. (Ezra 1) Others, including the Adiabenians (mentioned by Josephus as the oldest communities of the Diaspora), do not return to Palestine. Still others disperse throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, and beyond, over the course of the following centuries. 530 BCE Cambyses (530 – 522 BCE) of Persia. 525 – 401 BCE Egypt under Persian rule. c. 525 BCE 27th Dynasty (525 – 404) The Persians Cambyses II Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Cambyses 525-522 Darius I 521-486 Xerxes I 486-466 Artaxerxes I 465-424 Darius II 424-404 522 BCE Darius I (522-486 BCE) of Persia and Egypt. c. 520 – 515 BCE Jerusalem Temple rebuilt (Ezra 6). Beginning of the Second Temple Period. Judah becomes a province of the Persian Empire (Hag 2). 509 BCE Roman Republic established. 500 BCE World Population estimates = 100 – 150 million. 499 BCE Rome’s Persian Wars (499-479 BCE). 486 BCE Xerxes I (486-465 BCE) of Persia and Egypt. 465 BCE Artaxerxes I (465-424 BCE) of Persia and Egypt. 461 BCE Pericles (461-429 BCE) of Athens. c. 458 BCE Ezra’s mission?? c. 445 BCE Nehemiah comes to Judah. Torah promulgated, Ezra and Nehemiah’s reforms (Neh 8). Herodotus visits Egypt. This is a century before Manetho assembled his list of Pharaohs. 433 BCE Darius II (424-404 BCE) of Persia and Egypt. c. 404 BCE 28th Dynasty (404 – 399) Amyrtaeus     Amyrtaios (404-399) 400 BCE World Population estimates = 162 – 245 million. after 400 BCE Socrates’s death. c. 399 BCE 29th Dynasty (399 – 380) Nefaarud I Hakor Nepherites I (399-393) Psammuthis (393) Hakoris (393-380) Nepherites II (380) c. 398 BCE Ezra’s mission?? c. 380 BCE 30th Dynasty (380 – 343) The 30th Dynasty contains the last of the native-born Egyptian Pharaohs. Nakhtnebef (Head of Nectanebo I – Louvre Collection) Nectanebo I 380-362 Djedhor Teos 365-360 Naktenabo Nectanebo II 360-343 With the end of Nectanebo’s reign 2757 (= 3100 – 343) years of continuous, more-or-less, native rulers comes to an end. 358 BCE Artaxerxes III (358-338 BCE) of Persia and Egypt (in 343). c.356 BCE Alexander the Great (c.356-323) is born. c. 343 BCE 31st Dynasty (343 – 332) Also known as the Second Persian Period, was added after Manetho created his list of kings. After a 60 year hiatus, during which there was a period of native rule, Egypt is again ruled by Persians until Alexander conquers Egypt and Persia. Artaxerxes III Arses Darius III Ochus (Artaxerxes III) (343-338) Arses (338-336) Darius III Codomannus (336-332) 336 BCE Darius III (336-332 BCE) of Persia. Alexander “The Great” (336-323 BCE) of Greece, son of Philip II of Macedonia. It is interesting that these two should ascend their thrones at the same time.

P E R S I A N P E R I O D or I R O N A G E III

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332 BCE Alexander the Great (336-323 BCE) invades. A regional process of Hellenization begins all over the eastern Mediterranean. Alexander’s generals eventually become his successors; the Ptolemy’s rule Egypt and Palestine and the Seleucids rule Anatolia, Syria and Persia. 331 BCE Darius III (336-331 BCE), king of the Persians and Medes was defeated by Alexander the Great, son of Philip of Macedonia. (1 Macc 1). 331 – 200 BCE Alexander the Great conquered the “known” world. Following the death of Alexander, Palestine became part of the empire of the Greeks in Egypt, the Ptolemies. Hellenized cities where built along the coast at Gaza, Ascalon, Joppa, Dor, and Acco (renamed Ptolemais), ie all along the entire coast of Philistia. This provided a buffer zone between Egypt and the Seleucid empire which had already annexed Phoenicia. It also left the inland parts of Palestine (including a very small Judaea around Jerusalem and Jericho) essentially land locked. Interestingly, even at its smallest extent, Judaea still included Qumran. Inland cites were built or rebuilt, such as that at Scythiopolis (formerly Beth Shean), Samaria was Hellenized as Sebaste, and Rabbath-Ammon (Amman) was refounded as Philadelphia, which remained a free city state. Greeks, Macedonians and Hellenized Phoenicians took up permanent residence throughout Palestine. 323 BCE Alexander the Great dies. c. 323 – 30 BCE Manetho The Sacred Book, on Egyptian Religion, An Epitome of Physical Doctrines, On Festivals, possibly part of The Sacred Book, On Ancient Ritual and Religion, possibly part of The Sacred Book, On the Making of Kyphi, an incense, possibly part of The Sacred Book, The Criticisms of Herodotus, probably not a separate work, Book of Sothis or The Sothic Cycle (transmitted to us only through Syncellus), considered spurious and almost certainly not by Manetho, it may nevertheless include important transmission of some of the information contained in Manetho’s work, Kings of Thebes (in Egypt), considered doubtful, The Old Chronicle, a corrupted version of the History. The first two sources cover the tradition of Upper Egypt. The next two reflect the tradition of Lower Egypt. The Royal List of Abydos, lists 76 kings in order from Menes to Sethos I, but Dynasties 13 to 17 are missing. A mutilated copy of this list also appears in the Temple of Ramesses II at Abydos (now in the British Museum). The Royal List of Karnak (now in the Louvre) originally included a list of 61 kings from Menes to Tutmosis III of Dynasty 18. It includes many names from the 2nd Intermediate period, Dynasties 13 to 17. The Royal List of Sakkara (found in a tomb at Sakkara, and now in the Cairo Museum) originally included the cartouches of 58 (now only 47 remain), including Ramesses II. It begins with Miebis, the sixth king of Dynasty 1. It omits Dynasties 13 to 17. The Turin Royal Canon is clearly the most important of the available sources available today. It is written on the verso of a document containing accounting records from the time of Ramesses II on the recto (approximate date of 1200 BCE). When complete it contained the names of over 300 kings with their reign lengths in years, months and days. Like Manetho it begins with dynasties of gods followed by the dynasties of mortal kings. The arrangement is much like the Epitome of Manetho. The Palermo Stone is a more ancient source, taking the record back to before the 5th Dynasty. It was originally a large slab of black diorite seven feet long by 2 feet high. It is now broken. The middle section is still preserved and resides in the Museum of Palermo. Smaller fragments have been identified of this or a similar monumental stone have been identified in the Cairo Museum and at University College, London. The following, and all that appears of this work above concerning Manetho, is extracted from the volume of the Loeb Classical Library edition of Manetho (1940, reprinted 1980), translated by W. G. Waddell. This book draws on most of the available sources of ancient writers who quoted Manetho. It should be remembered that even these are sometimes only known through intermediary translations. Where more than one source attributed to the same author are available, they frequently disagree. Thus we cannot always be sure what Eusebius or Africanus, say, originally wrote about Manetho’s work. The names of the pharaohs used in this chronology and attributed to Manetho are Waddell’s English translations from his quoted sources, except where I have added my own transliteration (rarely) taken from the Greek or Latin text printed on the facing page to more precisely match the written form of the name. Where various sources give divergent names or name-forms, I have tried to include all of them after Waddell’s.Manetho wrote in Greek during the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Very little is known about him with certainty. Even his Aegyptiaca, or the History of Egypt, is only known from secondary sources. An Epitome of his History of Egypt was made at an early date, shortly after the history was written, but probably not by Manetho himself. It took he form of lists of Dynasties with notes of outstanding kings or important events. This uggests that Manetho’s works were popular and widely read from the earliest possible date. The remains of this Epitome are preserved primarily by the early Christian chronographers Eusebius (326 CE) and Sextus Julius Africanus. Africanus (221 CE) seems to ave transmitted the more accurate version of the two. Other known works attributed to Manetho include the following: Aegyptiaca and its Epitome are known only from fragmentary, often only in paraphrase, and frequently distorted, quotations chiefly by Josephus and by the Christian chronogrophers Africanus and Eusebius, with isolated passages quoted by Plutarch, Theophilus, Aelian, Porphyrius, Diogenes Laertius, Theodoretus, Lydus, Malalas, the Scholia to Plato, and the Etymologicum Magnum. His religious writings are known mainly through references in Plutarch’s On Isis and Osiris.There are only three things about the man himself that seem to be known with high probability: He was an Egyptian who wrote in Greek; He was a priest at Heliopolis, and; He was active in introducing the cult of Serapis. His name is unique as a proper name, if that is what it was. Perhaps it was his title rather than his name. A certain priest under the 19th Dynasty is described as “First Priest of the Truth of Thoth” and “Truth of Thoth” is how his name is sometimes interpreted. As to when he wrote, Syncellus (George the Monk, c. 800 CE) includes the information that he “lived later than Berossos”, and that he was “almost contemporary with Berossos, or a little later.” Berossos was a priest of Marduk in Babylon who lived under and wrote for Antiochus I (280 – 261 BCE), and dedicated his Chaldaica to him after he became sole monarch (281 or 280 BCE). He is usually associated with the district of Sebennytus (now Samannud), the seat of the 30th Dynasty, in the Delta, although the style “Manetho of Mendes”, a town about 17 miles distant from Sebennytus, is also known. Though this may be a later confusion with Ptolemy of Mendes, an Egytpian priest, probably from about the time of Augustus, who also wrote an Egyptian chronology in three books. Manetho is said to have styled himself in a letter to Ptolemy II Philadelphus as “high-priest and scribe of the sacred shrines of Egypt, born at Sebennytus and dwelling at Heliopolis.” As a priest Manetho had complete access to any number of records no longer available today. There is no way to know today exactly what records he consulted, there are some records that come down to the modern era with which he was certainly familiar and which must have been consulted in writing his History. From these we gain some insight into the quality of the versions of his work to which we have access. These include: He is quoted so extensively by these later writers that most of the document seems (however distorted) to have come down to us. Ptolemaic Dynasty Upon the death of Alexander, the Ptolemies take over the rule of Egypt, for nearly three hundred years, through the reign of Cleopatra VII. Ptolemy I (323-284 BCE) of Egypt. This period in Egypt is confused and confusing. Even today, there is some controversy over the order and precedence of the various members of this dynasty. Ptolemy I Ptolemy I Soter I (323-285) Ptolemy II Ptolemy II Philadelphus (282-246) Ptolemy III Ptolemy III Euergeter I (246-222) Ptolemy IV Ptolemy IV Philopator (222-205) Ptolemy V Ptolemy V Epiphanes (205-180) Ptolemy VI Ptolemy VI Philometor (180-164 & 163-145) Ptolemy VII Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator (145) Ptolemy VIII Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (170-163 & 145-116) Ptolemy IX Cleopatra III & Ptolemy IX Soter II (116-107 & 88-80) Ptolemy X Cleopatra III & Ptolemy X Alexander I (107-88) Cleopatra Berenice (81-80) Ptolemy XI Ptolemy XI Alexander II (80) Ptolemy XII Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos (80-58 & 55-51) Cleopatra VII Berenice IV (58-55) Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XIII (51-47) Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XIV (47-44) Ptolemy XV Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XV Cesarion (44-30) 312 BCE Founding of the Seleucid (Syrian) Empire by the Macedonians. The Ptolemies take control of Palestine. Seleucus I (312-280 BCE) of Syria, founder of the Seleucid Empire. 300 BCE 280 BCE Antiochus I (280-261 BCE) of Syria. 264 – 146 BCE Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage. 246 BCE Seleucus II (246-226 BCE) of Syria. 223 BCE Antiochus III (The Great: 223-187 BCE) of Syria. 218 BCE Hannibal campaigns in Italy. 203 BCE Ptolemy V (203-181 BCE) of Egypt. 200 BCE World Population estimates = 150 – 231 million.Could the bloodiness of Alexander’s conquests account for a suggested drop in the world population between 400 BCE and 200 BCE, or is there some other well known explanation for this effect? 198 BCE Judaea ceases to be a province of Egypt and becomes a province of the Seleucid Empire ruled by the Greek-Syrian successors of Alexander the Great. Signs of Hebrews succumbing to the Greek cultural influence (Hellenization) appear. The Book of Ecclesiasticus, by Jesus ben Sira, dates to about this time. He was a sage of Jerusalem who railed against the ‘ungodly men’ who have ‘forsaken the Law of the Most High God’. 197 BCE 390 years after the beginning of the Babylonian exile. The earliest year according to the Damascus Document of the birth of the Righteous Teacher.In the epoch of wrath, three hundred and ninety years after he gave them into the power of Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, he visited them and caused a root of planting to sprout from Israel and from Aaron to possess His land and to grow rich with the good things of His land. And they came to understand their iniquity and to know that they were guilty men; but they were like blind men or like those who grope for the way twenty years. And God recognized their works, that they sought Him with a whole heart and so raised up for them a Righteous Teacher to make them tread in the way of His heart and to instruct the last generations that which He would do in the last generation against the congregation of the false. (CD 1.5-12) Though F. M. Cross warns us not take the scriptural number “390″ (Ezek 4.5) seriously, it is not totally out of the question that it is meant to be a real number. If He visited them, and then let them wander for 20 years, while the Righteous Teacher grew and matured, then 177 BCE would be the earliest year in which he could begin teaching. If Cross is correct that 390 cannot be read arithmetically, then we are forced to fall back to looking for 20 years periods of error and “groping”. He suggests the approximately 20 period from the 160s to the 140s BCE when the Hasidim supported the Maccabees. Cross’ chronological interpretation is to assume that the break of the Hasidim either with Jonathan late is his career or with Simon early in his career, marks the end of the 20 years of groping. Simon became High Priest in 143/142 BCE. 190 BCE Battle of Magnesia. 187 BCE Seleucus IV (187-175 BCE) of Syria. Beginning of Hellenistic infiltration; resisted by the Zadokite High Priest Onias III. 181 BCE Ptolemy VI (181-146 BCE) of Egypt. 175BCE Seleucus IV deposed by his brother Antiochus IV (Epiphanes: 175-163 BCE), who seizes the throne to become king of Syria. Seleucus’ nine year old son, Demetrius, is sent as a hostage to Rome. Onias III deposed as high priest in favor of his Hellenophile brother, Jesus, who changed his name to the Greek form, Jason (175-172 BCE). Hellenization was most popular among the Judaean elite. Jason sets out to transform Jerusalem into a Hellenistic city. 172 BCE Jason expelled from office in favor of Menelaus (172-162 BCE), who was also a Hellenizing high priest. Onias IV, son of Onias III, is prevented by Menelaus from taking his hereditary position as high priest. c. 171 BCE Antiochus IV takes the title Epiphanes, “God made manifest”. 171 BCE Onias III murdered by Menelaus. With the death of Onias and the deposition of Jason, his usurping brother, the Zadokite family, from which the incumbents of the high priest’s office traditionally came, lost their centuries old monopoly. Forced Hellenization begins. 170 BCE 169 BCE Epiphanes allies himself with the Hellenizing movement in Jerusalem. He then makes an excursion into Egypt (the Delta region, at least) and he enjoys successful plundering there. On his return to Jerusalem Epiphanes invades the sanctuary and loots the Temple of its treasures. Onias IV, the hereditary high priest, flees to Ptolemy. In contravention of biblical law, which authorizes only one sanctuary and only in Jerusalem, Onias plans and eventually builds a small town like Jerusalem, Leontopolis, and in it a Sanctuary like the one in the Temple in Jerusalem.If Onias’ party formed the basis for the Hasidaeans who appear later, then this copy of the temple must eventually have been recognized as a mistake. If the Hasidim were the beginnings of the sectarian group that is supposed to have occupied Qumran, then we have to explain how the bones of sacrificial animals came be buried at Qumran. Cross attributes to Strugnell the idea that the Qumran sect lived their lives on a pattern of the camps in the wilderness, where sacrifice outside the Temple was permissible, under the auspices of a Zadokite priest. That would explain why there was no remote resemblance to the Temple at Qumran like there had been at Leontopolis. Other copies of the Temple have been reported and it is possible that several groups were eventually convinced to leave their fake temples and join the camps in the wilderness movement, if there was one. I like the idea that Onias III was the original inspiration for the Teacher of Righteousness. Though he did not lead anyone into the desert, original writings of such a sect would have provided a place of honor for the last Zadokite High Priest. That would seem to leave Jesus, renamed Jason, as the Wicked Priest. The parallel to the later Jason Maccabaeus must have had a galvanizing effect on such a sect as he removes the last vestiges of hope for a return of the Zadokite high priests to the Temple. The Wicked priest could thus be a composite based on the coincidence of identical names for two hated priests. Jason Maccabaeus enemy, but probably not a second candidate for the Teacher of Righteousness, was Alcimus. The Hasidim supported him at one time, and technically he was the last Zadokite high priest, but he turned on them and killed many. Another good candidate for the Teacher of Righteousness is some unnamed student or descendent of Onias III. 168 BCE Epiphanes stopped by the Romans in his second campaign against Egypt. 167 BCE Sacrifices are suspended in the Temple for 3-1/2 years. Persecution of those Hebrews who opposed unification with the Seleucid Empire on the basis of Greek culture and religion. Official abolition of Judaic religion and practice under threat of death. Epiphanes’ Mysian commander, Apollonius, tortures and kills many in Jerusalem. The Temple is transformed into a sanctuary of Olympian Zeus. On December 6, Epiphanes erects a “horrible abomination” upon the altar in the Temple. (In the original Hebrew this is a contemptuous pun on the title “lord of Heaven” given to Zeus Olympios to whom an image or an altar was apparently erected.) The opposition to the Hellenizers is finally galvanized into action by this final “abomination of desolation”. Apollonius built the massive walls and towers that became the Citadel overlooking the Temple and its courts on Mt Zion. The Syrian garrison, together with dissidents, occupied the Citadel for 26 years (until 141 BCE) and served as a continuing threat to the Temple, the City of Jerusalem, and the citizens of Jerusalem. (1 Macc; Dan 11:36-39) 166 BCE Rising of the Maccabees (166-160 BCE) supported by the traditional, anti-Hellenistic, parties. Originally lead by Mattathias, son of Hasmon (Simeon), or Asamonaeus (hence the term “Hasmonaean” for their dynasty), a priest from Modein (20 miles NW of Jerusalem), who with his five sons start a revolt, tear down the pagan altars, and reinstate circumcision. They are initially supported by the traditional, anti-Hellenistic, groups, in particular, by the company of the Pious, the Hasidaeans or Hasidim. After Mattathias death, his son Judas (nicknamed “Maccabaeus” meaning “the hammer”) takes over as leader of the rebel army and defeats Antiochus’ generals, Apollonius and Seron. Apollonius was killed and Judas claimed his sword. Seron was also defeated and he and his army were driven out of Judaea and took refuge in the land of the Philistines (the coastal cities of southern Palestine, especially Jamnia which was an important base for Seleucid power).F. M Cross makes a fairly good case for the Hasidim as the Essenes whom it is claimed occupied Qumran. Their later initial support of Alcimus, despite the presence of his Hellenizing Syrian supporters, is a strong suggestion of their dedication to the reinstallation of the Zadokite High Priests. This seems more than a little fanatical given Alcimus willingness to let 60 of the Hasidim be executed by his own supporters. 165 BCE 165 BCE Epiphanes sets out to levy tribute from Persia to pay for his wars against Judaea (he failed). At the same time he left Lysias in charge of the Empire and his son, Antiochus. He also ordered him to send an army against Judaea with orders to wipe out the Hebrew race and to efface their memory from the land. He intended to resettle the land with foreigners and redistribute the land by lot. Lysias sent Ptolemy, Nicanor and Gorgias at the head of the armies of Syria. 164 BCE Truce with Syria. Cleansing, rededication and repair of the Temple in Jerusalem. Daily sacrifices resume in the Temple on December 14, 164 BCE after Judas initiates an attack to drive the Syrian garrison out of the Upper City and into the Citadel. Judas “Maccabaeus” assumes responsibility as high priest (164-161 BCE) even as Menelaus continues to hold the official title from the king of Syria. Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-163 BCE) of Syria dies as early as November or December in Persia shortly after hearing that the Temple in Jerusalem is recaptured by Judas. (Dan 7:25; 12:7, 8:14, 9:27) 163 BCE Antiochus V (163-162 BCE), the nine year old son of Epiphanes, king of Syria. 163 BCE Judaeans living in Galilee and Gilead are attacked and Judas sends armies to rescue them. Joseph and Asariah, whom Judas left in charge during his absence, attack Jamnia and are defeated by Gorgias’ army. After Judas returned from his rescue mission to Gilead, he attacked Idumaea and Philistia, plundered their cities, and then returned to Jerusalem. 162 BCE Antiochus V of Syria is executed by his twenty-five year old cousin, Demetrius I (162-150 BCE), who fled his captivity in Rome to claim his rightful place as king of Syria. Judas attacks the Syrian garrison in the Citadel in Jerusalem. Menelaus is executed by the Syrians. Alcimus (162-159 BCE) is appointed high priest by the king of Syria. This splits the ranks of the Hasidim within the Maccabaean movement. As an Aaronic priest, most of the Hasidim trusted Alcimus until he accepted this appointment. Alcimus Syrian supporters’ kill 60 of the Hasidim who trusted his peaceful words. Judas and his brothers did not trust Alcimus from the beginning since he came with Bacchides and a large Syrian army to enforce his appointment as high priest. 161 BCE Judas allies himself with Rome. The treaty brings the Judaeans no practical help against Syria, however. The Syrian army now under Nicanor attacks in order to protect the garrison and Alcimus. 160 BCE 160 BCE Nicanor dies in battle and his army is defeated. Bacchides takes command of the Syrian army. Judas “Maccabaeus” dies in battle about one month after Nicanor. His brother Eleazar died in 162 BCE in an earlier battle and another brother, John, dies a few days after Judas in a Syrian plot. That leaves only two remaining Hasmonaean brothers, Jonathan and Simon. Jonathan (160-142 BCE) inherits Judas’ position as leader of the rebels and eventually receives from the king of Syria the title High Priest (152-143/2 BCE) and then governor of Judaea (145-142 BCE). Jonathan is from a priestly family but not of the Zadokites, the traditional holders of the position of the high priestly title. c. 160? BCE Temple of Onias IV built. 159 BCE Alcimus, the last Hellenizing High Priest, dies of a stroke. No High Priest is appointed for 6 or 7 years until Jonathan is appointed by Alexander Balas, usurper of the Seleucid throne, in 152. 153 BCE The Syrian throne of Demetrius I (162-153 BCE) usurped by Alexander Balas (nominal king of Syria 153-145 BCE), alleged to be a son of Antiochus IV. Jonathan’s support of Alexander over Demetrius earned him some favors from Alexander during the struggle and after they were successful. 150 BCE 150/49 BCE Alexander Balas confirms Jonathan as high priest. An important step toward Judaean independence. Also, marks a furtherance of the split between the conservatives, like the Hasidim, who still looked to the Zadokites for their high priests, and the Maccabees. Both sides were still united in their antipathy to the Hellenizing influence of the Seleucid Empire, however. mid-second century BCE Qumran was rebuilt and expanded (including general repairs and strengthening of the walls, including the addition of the ramp of undressed stones buttressing the outer wall of the first two levels of the tower). There seems to be general disagreement about whether or not this type of structure was “typical” of the fortified structures of the period. The term “country forts” has been proposed, but as far as I can tell there is no consensus about who built such forts, why they were built where they are, or even if they were forts or simply strong houses built in remote locations. Conceivably, the structures styled country forts could have been built on may different plans and some, like Qumran according to de Vaux, may have used the shell of much older structures to save some of the effort required to build from scratch. 146 BCE The revolt of the Achaean League. This marks the end of Greek independence. This episode is inserted by the Author of 1 Maccabees into his narrative at an earlier date primarily to show the Greeks, whom he regards as the enemies of God, suffering a defeat at the hands of the Romans at a time when Rome is making friendly overtures to Judas. In fact, by the time this occurred, Judas had already been dead for fourteen years. 146 BCE Ptolemy VII (146-116 BCE) of Egypt. 145 BCE Alexander Balas (nominal king of Syria 150-145 BCE) dies, leaving his son Antiochus VI (145-138 BCE) raised to the throne as king of Syria by Tryphon, his father’s general. (One timeline listed Demetrius II (145-139 BCE), but this almost has to be a reference to Tryphon who was raising and leading Antiochus VI. A Demetrius is also mentioned in 1 Macc. as confirming Simon’s position as high priest ten years after Demetrius I’s death, though this could be misleading if the times were altered for expositional purposes by the author.) Jonathan named governor of Judaea (145-142 BCE). Jonathan’s younger brother, Simon, is made a military governor of part of Palestine. Additional important steps toward Judaean independence. c.143 BCE Treaty with Rome renewed by Jonathan, necessitated by the death of the ruler, Judas, who made it. Jonathan is arrested by Tryphon. 142 BCE Jonathan (161-142 BCE) is executed in prison. Jonathan’s brother Simon (142-134 BCE) becomes high priest. ?141 BCE Syrian garrison expelled from the Citadel; Judaea effectively independent. 140 BCE 140 BCE In the third year of his rule, Simon calls an assembly of ‘the priests and people and heads of the nation and the elders of the country’ to confirm his and his family’s right to serve as high priest ‘until a faithful prophet arise’ to decide the priestly question, between the Hasmonaeans and the Zadokites, presumably. Simon is thereby appointed ethnarch, his position as high priest is confirmed by the whole Jewish assembly, and both of his titles are confirmed as hereditary, marking the beginning of the Maccabaean, or Hasmonaean, dynasty. The decree was engraved in bronze and mounted on a stelae on Mount Zion. Annexation of Joppa and Jamnia. For the next 64 years the Hasmonaean successors annexed, one by one, all the Hellenistic towns of Palestine, and conquered Idumaea in the south and Samaria and Ituraea in the north. 138 BCE Antiochus VI (145-138 BCE) of Syria dies. Antiochus VII (Sidates: 138-129 BCE) king of Syria after defeating Tryphon’s attempt to usurp the throne. 134 BCE Simon with two of his sons, Judas and Mattathias, is killed on a visit to the fortress, Doq, being constructed above Jericho for Simon by Ptolemy, son of Abudos and son-in-law of Simon. Ptolemy dispatched troops to Gezer to kill Simon’s other son, John Hyrcanus, but he survives. John Hyrcanus I (135-104 BCE) becomes high priest and ethnarch. Annexation of coastal cities, Samaritis, and Idumaea. Hyrcanus is opposed by the Pharisees. The embarrassing part of this fiasco is that Simon and his sons attended a banquet held in their honor by Ptolemy, and they were drunk when Ptolemy’s men murdered Simon. The two sons were spared only briefly, then executed, too. 129 BCE Antiochus VII (138-129 BCE) of Syria dies. 116 BCE Ptolemy VIII (116-81 BCE) of Egypt. 104 BCE John Hyrcanus I (135/4-104 BCE) high priest and ethnarch of Judaea dies. Aristobulus I (104-103 BCE) becomes high priest and king for about one year. Annexation of Galilee. 103 BCE Aristobulus I (104-103 BCE) dies. His brother Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE) high priest and king. He marries his brother’s widow, Alexandra Salome, as required by Judaic law. Annexation of remaining coastal cities, the Greek cities east of Jordan, and Peraea. Alexander is resisted by the Pharisees. 100 BCE 82 BCE Sulla (82-79 BCE) Dictator of Rome. 81 BCE Ptolemy IX (81-80 BCE) of Egypt. 76 BCE Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE) dies. Jannaeus’ widow Alexandra Salome (76-67 BCE) queen. His son, Hyrcanus II (I: 76-67 BCE), becomes high priest. 73 BCE Birth of Herod the Great (73-4 BCE). 70 BCE 68 BCE Antiochus XIII (68-67 BCE) of Syria. 67 BCE Hyrcanus II high priest and king (67 BCE, three months). Antipater is his minister. Hyrcanus II is deposed by his brother Aristobulus II (67-63 BCE) who becomes both king and high priest. 66 BCE Pompey takes over command from Lucullus and campaigns (66-63 BCE) in Asia. 66 – 63 BCE Pompey’s campaigns in East. Annexation of Syria as a province.

H E L L E N I S T I C P E R I O D

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63 BCE

Pompey’s siege of Jerusalem. Aristobulus II taken prisoner by Pompey after the fall of Jerusalem. Judaea becomes a Roman province. Hyrcanus II (II: 63-40 BCE) reinstated as high priest and ethnarch. Antipater (father of Herod the Great) is still his chief minister and increasingly powerful. Aristobulus II and sons taken to Rome. Cities on coast and east of Jordan detached from Judaea. Between father and son the Dynasty of Antipater and Herod eventually supplants the Hasmonaeans.

62 BCE

Return of Pompey to Rome with Hebrew prisoners.

60 BCE

58 BCE

Caesar’s Gallic Wars (58-51 BCE).

57 – 55 BCE

Unsuccessful attempts to reinstate Aristobulus and sons. Gabinius governor of Syria.

55 BCE

Judaean help to Gabinius in Egypt. Temple treasure seized by Crassus. Antipater appointed governor of Palestine.

55 – 53 BCE

Crassus governor of Syria

53 – 51 BCE

Cassius governor of Syria.

50 BCE

50 BCE

Cleopatra VII (51-30 BCE) of Egypt.

49 – 45 BCE

Civil war between Caesar and Pompeians.

49 BCE

Death of Aristobulus II and elder son.

48 BCE

Death of Pompey at Pharsalus.

48/7 BCE

Judaean help to Caesar in Egypt.

47 BCE

Caesar in Judaea. Hyrcanus II’s position confirmed. Power and honors given to Antipater. Joppa restored. Rebuilding of walls of Jerusalem authorized. Herod in Galilee.

47 – 46 BCE

Sextus Caesar in Syria.

46 BCE

Herod in Syria.

44 BCE

Murder of Caesar in Rome.

43 – 42 BCE

Civil war between Caesarians and ‘liberators’. Cassius (the ‘liberator’) in Syria.

43 BCE

Mt Etna erupts. Cassius demands money.

42 BCE

Battle of Philippi. Death of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi.

40 BCE

40 BCE

Parthian invasion of Syria and Palestine. Antigonus II, son of Aristobulus II, occupied the throne and was high priest (43-37 BCE) with Parthian support. Death of Phasel. In Rome, Herod appointed king. Herod begins his campaigns for possession of Palestine.

40 – 31 BCE

Qumran was damaged either by an earthquake (31 BCE, known to have occurred in Palestine from the works of Josephus) or an attack (possibly as early as 40 BCE during the Parthian invasion). Originally, thought by de Vaux to have been abandoned after this event. This now appears to be unlikely. The consensus has shifted toward more or less continuous occupation with continuity in both pottery and life style of the inhabitants. Therefore, it become more probable that the same people simply moved back in immediately, or shortly, after the event.Continuous occupation scenarios appeal to me because I am still playing with the idea that Qumran acted as a point of entry for goods arriving by boat from south and east of the Dead Sea. That might have necessitated some official presence on a more or less continuous basis. Consistent with this and suggested by others, is that it might also have provided a holding area for people who were forbidden to enter Jerusalem. Some think the graves at the site contain the ill and infirm who were not allowed to continue to Jerusalem and had no way to return.

The fortified nature of the buildings may have been inadequate for a frontier fortress like those at Masada or Machaerus. It was, however, quite adequate for a small lightly armed staff to keep the peace, guard the boats, and monitor the goods and people seeking to gain access to Jerusalem by boat from beyond the Dead Sea.

40 – 4 BCE

Nominal reign of Herod the Great. Early reports suggested that no coins from this period were found at Qumran leading to speculation that it was abandoned during this entire period. During the early years of Herod’s nominal reign, Antigonus II (40-37 BCE) controlled Jerusalem and parts of Palestine.

39 – 38 BCE

Roman campaigns against Parthia. East under Mark Antony’s control; Antony dominated by Cleopatra.

37 BCE

Herod (37-4 BCE) captures Jerusalem with Sosius and assumes the throne. Herod’s marriage to Mariamme I. Antigonus II deposed and, possibly, executed. He may not have been executed until 18 BCE. End of the Hasmonaean dynasty and the beginning of the Herodian Dynasty.

36 BCE

Murder of high priest, Mariamme’s brother. Parthians defeat Antony.

c. 35 BCE

Coastal cities, including Joppa, given to Cleopatra by Anthony.

32 BCE

War between Herod and Malchus of Nabataea.

31 BCE

Execution of Hyrcanus II. Defeat of Antony and Cleopatra by Octavian (Augustus) in a naval battle at Actium.

30 BCE

30 BCE

Herod’s position confirmed by Octavian. Coastal cities and Greek cities east of Jordan restored. Egypt annexed to Roman as a province.

c. 30 BCE

Malchus of Nabataea succeeded by Obodas.

Roman Emperors Augustus (30 BCE – 14 CE) Tiberius (14-37) Gaius Caligula (37-41) Claudius (41-54) Nero (54-69) Vespasian (69-79) Titus (79-81) Domitian (81-96) Nerva (96-98) Trajan (98-117) Hadrian (117-138) Antoninus Pius (138-161) Marcus Aurelius (161-180) Septimus Severus (193-211) Geta, Caracalla (209-217) Diocletian (284-305)

29 BCE

Murder of Mariamme I.

27/6 BCE

Octavian is given the name ‘Augustus’ and becomes emperor of Rome (27 BCE – 14 CE). Sebaste founded by Herod (named for Sebastos, ie Augustus).

23 BCE

Auranitis, Trachonitis and Batanaea added to Herod’s kingdom.

c. 23 BCE

Herod married to Mariamme II.

23 BCE

Rebuilding of the Temple begins.

20 BCE

20 BCE

Paneas, Ulatha and Gaulanitis added to Herod’s kingdom.

18 BCE

Work begins on Herod’s Temple.

16 BCE

Herod’s first visit to Rome.

12 BCE

Herod’s second visit to Rome. Trial of Alexander and Aristobulus (both sons of Herod the Great by Mariamme I). Border trouble with Nabataea.

10 BCE

c. 7 BCE

Execution of Alexander and Aristobulus.

c. 6 BCE

The Gospels of Matthew and Luke date the birth of Jesus of Nazareth to the last years of Herod’s reign (ca. 12 – 4 BCE).

5 BCE

Episode with the golden eagle on the Temple gate.

4 BCE

Execution of Antipater III (son of Herod the Great by Doris). Death of Herod the Great (March). Civil war. Division of the kingdom, by Augustus during his adjudication of Herod’s will, between Philip (Tetrarch of Batanaea, Trachonitis, Auranitis and some parts of Zenodorus’ domain near Paneas – with a revenue of 100 talents: 4 BCE – 34 CE), Herod Antipas (Tetrarch of Peraea and Galilee – with a revenue of 200 talents: 4 BCE – 39 CE), and Archelaus (Ethnarch of Idumaea, Judaea and Samaritis – with a revenue of 400 talents: 4 BCE – 6 CE).

4 BCE

In de Vaux’s original timeline, Qumran was reoccupied by Jewish sectarians around this time. Now it appears that it may never have been entirely abandoned. In either event, it was continuously occupied from about this time by Judaeans of some sort, or sorts, until its capture by the Roman army close to 70 CE, after which it was occupied by Roman forces until the turn of the century.

c.1 BCE

World Population estimates = 170 – 400 million.

Beginning of the Common Era

6 CE

Deposition of Archelaus from the Ethnarchy by Augustus for his misgovernment of Judaeans and Samaritans alike. Annexation of Judaea, which included Judaea, Idumaea and Samaria (plus Qumran), as a province. The province was ruled by various Roman governors (6-41 CE). Among these was Pontius Pilate (27-37 CE).

6 CE

Coponius Roman Prefect (6 -c.9) of Judaea.

c. 6 CE

Augustus appointed Annas (Ananus I) ben Seth High Priest (6 -15) of Jerusalem Temple (”House of Annas” produced 8 High Priests of Judaea).

c. 9 – c. 12 CE

Ambivius Roman Prefect of Judaea.

10 CE

c. 10 CE

Death of Salome.

c. 12 CE

Rufus Roman Prefect (c. 12 – 15) of Judaea.

14 CE

Accession of Tiberius (14 – 37).

15 CE

Gratus: Roman Prefect (15 – 26) of Judaea.

16 CE

Eleazar, son of Annas (6-15), appointed High Priest (16 -17) of Jerusalem Temple.

18 CE

Joseph Caiaphas (18 – 36), son-in-law of Annas (6 -15), appointed High Priest of Jerusalem Temple by Prefect Valerius Gratus, deposed by Syrian Legate Vitellius. Archelaus dies, 12 years after being deposed from the Ethnarchy.

c. 19 CE

Herod Antipas moved Galilaean capital from Sepphoris to his new Tiberius.

20 CE

26 CE

Pontius Pilate governor (26 – 36) of Samaria, Judaea, and Idumaea.

c. 29 CE

John the Baptist, in the “15th year of Tiberius” [Lk3:1-2], who is identified equivocally as a “Nazirite”? [Lk1:15], was arrested and killed by Herod Antipas [Lk3:19-20].

30 CE

c. 30 CE

Shammai the Elder founded Bet Shammai Torah school.

30 or 33 or 36 CE

Crucifixion of Christ. Possible Friday 14 Nisan crucifixion dates: April 7, 30 CE, April 3, 33 CE, March 30, 36 CE. Friday 15 Nisan is another popular date.

c. 34 CE

Death of Philip.

36 CE

Marcellus Roman Prefect (36 – 37) of Judaea.

36 CE

Agrippa I (36 – 37) in Rome. Jonathan appointed Jerusalem High Priest (36 – 37) by Syrian Legate Vitellius.

c. 37 CE

Conversion of Saul of Tarsus (”Paul”); a Roman citizen.

37

Marullus: Roman Prefect (37 – c. 41) of Judaea. A Governor not mentioned by Josephus.

37 CE

Accession of Gaius (”Caligula”: b. 12; 37 – 41) Emperor of Rome.

37 CE

Birth of Josephus (?). Appointment of Herod Agrippa I king (37 – 41) (of Philip and Lysanias’ tetrarchies). In 40, Herod Antipas’ Galilee and Peraea tetrarchies were added to Agrippa I.

38 CE

Greek – Jewish riots in Alexandria.

39 CE

Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of Galilee exiled to the Pyrenees. This event is not mentioned in any of the biblical accounts of the time.

39 – 40 CE

Greek-Jewish riots in Antioch. Jewish protest at Ptolemais.

40 CE

40 CE

Gaius’ attack on the Temple.

c. 40 CE

Septuagint: 4 Maccabees written in Greek in Alexandria. Paul went to Jerusalem (1st trip?) to meet Peter and James.

40 – 41 CE

Agrippa I in Rome.

41 CE

Province of Judaea disbanded and made into Agrippa I’s kingdom (41-44 CE). Accession of Claudius (b. 10 BCE; 41 – 54) Emperor or Rome.

41 CE

By this time both Galilee and Judaea had been transferred to King Agrippa, reuniting Palestine for the first time since 6 CE under a single non-Roman monarch (even though he was a puppet king of Rome).

44 CE

Province of Judaea reconstituted after the death of Agrippa I, with Galilee and Peraea included. James, the brother of John, executed by the sword by Agrippa I. C. Cuspius Fadus: Roman Procurator (44 – 46 CE) of Judaea (including Samaria, Judaea, Idumaea). Theudas beheaded for parting the Jordan (as the Red Sea was parted in Exodus).

45 CE

c. 45 CE

Jacob and Simon, sons of Judah of Gamala, crucified. Philo Judaeus of Alexandria (b.30 BCE), Jewish philosopher and hellenizer, tried to unify Greek and Hebrew philosophy.

46/47 CE

Paul’s first journey. Council at Jerusalem.

?46 – 48 CE

Tiberius Julius Alexander Roman Procurator of Judaea, an apostate Jew.

47 CE

Ananias ben Nedebaeus appointed Jerusalem High Priest (47 – 59) by Herod of Chalcis.

c. 47-48 CE

Paul on Cyprus with Barnabas.

48 CE

Ventidius Cumanas Roman Procurator (48 – 52) Judaea (Samaria, Judaea, Idumaea). Agrippa II, King of Judaea (48 – 93), ruled first from Chalcis (48-52) and then from Iturea (52-93).

48 – 49? CE

Council of Apostles & Elders, the 1st Christian Council, also an incident at Antioch where Paul publicly condemned Peter.

c. 49 – 50 CE

Paul in Corinth (center of his mission to the Gentiles).

50 CE

50 CE

Passover riot in Jerusalem leaves 20-30,000 killed.

52 CE

M. Antonius Felix, a Greek Freedman, Roman Procurator (52-c. 60) of Judaea. Arrest and imprisonment of St. Paul. M. Antonius Felix: massacred an “Egyptian Prophet” and c. 30,000 unarmed participants during an Exodus reenactment in 55 CE and in c. 58 CE he crushed a Jewish revolt in Caesarea.

53 – 63 CE

Parthian War with Rome.

54 CE

Claudius poisoned by his wife Agrippina. Accession of Nero (b. 37; 54-68) Emperor of Rome, last of the Julio-Claudian line.

55 CE

c. 57 CE

Paul makes his last visit to Jerusalem.

c. 58 CE

Paul is imprisoned in Caesarea. “Quarrel in Caesarea referred to Nero” – could this be Paul?

59 CE

Nero killed his mother Agrippina.

58/9 – 62 CE

Porcius Festus Roman Procurator. Trial of St. Paul and appeal to Nero (because as a Roman citizen he was entitled to such an appeal).

60 CE

c. 60 CE

Paul sent to Rome and imprisoned.

60 CE

Porcius Festus, Roman Procurator (60 – 62).

c. 62 CE

Paul martyred for treason in Rome? Nero killed his wife Octavia, and married Poppaea Sabina.

62 CE

Lucceius Albinus, Roman Procurator (62 – 64) of Judaea. “Being a heartless Sadducee, Ananus {II} thinking that he had a favorable opportunity, because Festus had died and Albinus was still on his way, called a meeting [literally, "sanhedrin"] of judges and brought into it the brother of Jesus-who-is-called-Messiah, James by name, and some others. He made the accusation that they had transgressed the law, and he handed them over to be stoned.” [JA 20.9.1, Marginal Jew, p.57]

64 CE

Fire of Rome (July 18). Nero blamed the Christians. Gessius Florus Roman Procurator (64 – 66) of Judaea (Samaria, Judaea, Idumaea), a Greek from Asia Minor. He raided the Temple setting off the Jewish rebellion of 66-73. The first persecution of the Christians began in Rome. The Romans generally made little or no distinction between Christians and Jews, considering them ethnically, culturally, and religiously, one and the same people. Thanks to Paul’s efforts this had already begun to change, but at the time and to a Roman, the differences might not yet have been discernable.

65 CE

66 CE

Nero entered the Olympic Games and won. Nero freed Greece from Roman administration. Nero also ordered the suicide of his courtier Petronius. Roman Legate of Syria Cestius Gallus forced to retreat from Judaea.

66 – 74 CE

The First Revolt of the Palestinian Jews against Rome.

66 – 69 CE

Tiberius Julius Alexander prefect of Syria.

66 CE

Cestius Gallus in Jerusalem at Passover. Riots in Caesarea. Riots in Alexandria. Anti-Semitic uprisings in cities of Syria.

66 CE, May

Outbreak of war. Florus’ attack on Jerusalem. Masada captured by Sacarii.

66 CE, September

Roman troops driven out of Jerusalem.

66 CE, November

Defeat of Cestius at Beth-horon. Appointment of Josephus and five other regional commanders.

67 CE

Arrival of Roman General Vespasianus (Vespasian) and Titus. Anti-Semitic riots in Antioch. Peter, first Pope?, first bishop of Antioch?, martyred (crucified?) in Rome? Pope Linus (67 – 78).

67 CE, July

Capture of Jotapata. Vespasian conquers most of Galilee.

67 CE, October

Capture of Gamala. In Jerusalem, arrival of John of Gischala; his alliance with the Zealots; deposition of high priest; faction fighting.

68 CE

Nero dethroned and on June 9 committed suicide. Accession of Galba, Roman Emperor (June 68 – January 69, assassinated).

Sometime between 68 and 70 CE

Qumran is captured by Roman forces, either shortly before or shortly after the fall of Jerusalem. Other fortresses known to have been captured after the fall of Jerusalem include Herodium, Machaerus, and Masada making it somewhat more likely that Qumran fell as part of the general offensive against the Jews in the Judaean Wilderness after the fall of the capital rather than before. (It is also possible that Qumran was taken and occupied before the offensive on Jerusalem. It is too small to justify diverting the entire army, but its occupiers may have been enough of an annoyance to justify installing a small garrison in order to monitor the army’s flank.) If Qumran was taken after the fall of Jerusalem, the Tenth Roman Legion moved directly on Jerusalem after capturing Jericho and the area south of Jericho as far as the tip of the Dead Sea.

68 CE

Subjugation of most of Judaea, Idumaea and Peraea. Romans inactive from c. July. Simon, son of Gioras, in control of parts of Judaea and Idumaea. In Jerusalem, reinforcements summoned from Idumaea; alliance between John and Zealots ended.

69 CE

Simon admitted into Jerusalem; fighting between him, John of Gischala and Zealots.

69 CE, January

Murder of Galba. Otho, Roman Emperor (January 69 – April 69, assassinated).

69 CE, Spring

Roman recovery of territory lost to Simon.

69 CE, April

Death of Otho. Vitellius, Roman Emperor (April 69 – December 69, assassinated).

69 CE, July

Vespasian (69-79 CE) proclaimed Emperor of Rome.

69 CE Autumn

Titus left in command by Vespasian, who moved to Egypt.

69 CE, December

Death of Vitellius and Flavian victory. By appointment of the Roman Senate, Vespasian (b. 9) proclaimed Roman Emperor (December 69 – June 23, 79) while still in Egypt. (Founder of the Flavian Dynasty (69-96), built the Colosseum, quelled Roman & Jerusalem revolts.)

70 CE

70 CE – Overview

The year 70 CE, as Hershel Shanks puts it, has served as an impenetrable wall to the study of early Judaism and Christianity. With the destruction of Jerusalem, and all that entails, almost all documentary evidence of intertestamental Judaism was also destroyed. We have some, but in fact very little, information about only four Jewish sects from the period immediately preceding the destruction of the City (Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes and Christians). What little we know about the differences among them comes only from later writers.The earliest post-destruction Jewish writings (the Mishnah) date from 200 CE. Among Christian documents, only Paul’s letters and, possibly, the gospel of Mark were written before the destruction. Everything else was later. Even the books of Josephus, which were written shortly after the destruction, introduce the additional complicating factor that they were written for a Roman audience who were not interested in the sectarian questions that interest most of us today.

In other words, there is no documentary evidence about sectarian Judaism from the intertestamental period that has not been filtered through the biases of later generations; until we come to the Dead Sea Scrolls. Here for the first time we encounter writings that may come from one or more sects that were not previously part of the “known” cast of conventionally recognized groups. Not surprisingly, most modern scholars have tried to fit these writings onto one of the known groups (Essenes, dissident Saducees, or the Hassidim, for example). They are missing a terrific opportunity to break open the doors to understanding this period by not at least considering other possibilities.

More than half of the texts discovered at Qumran were unknown to modern biblical and Jewish scholars prior to their discovery at Qumran. Scholars seem not to have noticed what this implies about the state of intertestamental Judaism prior to the destruction of Jerusalem. It suggests the possibility, if not the likelihood, that among the thousands of books destroyed there were likely to be more thousands of books that we still know nothing about. The diversity of Judaism during that period has still not been fully appreciated, but that does not mean it was not a fact of life at the time.

If anything, this brings into even sharper focus that apparent intention of the early Christians to remain Jews, in the fullest sense of that word, for decades after Jesus’ death. The differences of opinion between James, called the Brother of Jesus, and Paul seem now to have been dominated by this specific dividing line. Paul wanted to include non-Jews, and to allow modifications to Jewish laws to accommodate them (no circumcision required, for example), while James and his followers still considered themselves Jews, intended for their sect to remain Jewish, and expected their members to all be Jews. One can predict, on the basis that Paul’s faction won, that Christian writings have also been purged of this earlier tradition. It also explains why the “Church in Jerusalem” seems to have died out without a whimper. James and Mary and most of the unknown members of that church were literally cut out of the history of Christianity by later Church fathers who purged the Christian literature as surely as the Roman destruction of Jerusalem purged much of the Jewish literature.

70 CE

Return of Vespasian to Rome. Sack of Jerusalem by Roman Armies occupying Judaea. End of the Second Temple Period.

70 CE, Spring

Siege of Jerusalem by the Roman army begins.

70 CE, May

Two outer northern walls of Jerusalem captured by the Roman besieging army. Circumvallation built.

70 CE, July

Antonia fortress in Jerusalem recaptured by Titus, eldest son of Vespasian.

70 CE, August

Titus conquers Jerusalem and the Temple stormed and burnt. All Jews are banned from the city.

70 CE, September

Upper City captured and burnt.

70/1 CE, Winter

Fire in Antioch.

71 CE, Spring

Titus visits Jerusalem.

71 CE, Summer

Triumph of Vespasian and Titus.

71 CE, Autumn?

Capture of the fortress at Herodium.

72 CE

Capture of the fortress at Machaerus. Battle of Jardes forest.

72 – 73 CE

Trouble in Alexandria and Egypt; Temple of Onias closed.

73 CE, May

The fortress at Masada, after a long siege by the Roman army, falls. Its defenders, mostly or exclusively Zealots, commit mass suicide the night before the fortress is captured. Only a hand full of survivors are captured alive. This marks the end of the First Revolt of the Jews against Rome.

75 CE

79 CE

Pope Anacletus (79 – 91, “blameless?”)

79 CE, June

Titus (b. 39), eldest son of Vespasian, Roman Emperor (June 23, 79 – September 13, 81).

79 CE, August

Pliny the Elder (b. 23) dies during the eruption of Vesuvius on August 24, which buries Pompeii and Herculaneum.

81 CE, September

Domitianus (b. 51), Roman Emperor (September 13, 81 – September 18, 96), Vespasianus’ youngest son.

c. 90 – 91 CE

Rabbis assembled at Jamnia (Yavneh) for the “Council of Jamnia” to formulate the biblical canon.

between 90 – 96 BCE

The Book of Revelation makes its first appearance.

91 CE

Pope Clement I (91 – 101); wrote to Corinth in 95.

94 CE

“Jewish Antiquities” by Josephus, written in Aramaic, translated into Greek.

96 CE

Nerva (b. 35?), Roman Emperor (September 18, 96 – January 25, 98). Nerva instituted law reform; adopted Trajan and named him his successor.

98 CE

Trajanus (Trajan, b. 53?), Roman Emperor (January 25, 98 – August 8, 117), Nerva’s chosen successor. The Roman Empire reached its maximum extent under Trajan. Under his reign are the following accomplishments; Roman Arch Aqueduct at Segovia, Spain; annexations of Dacia (Romania 106-1453), Arabia (106-c630), Armenia (114-162), Mesopotamia (114-115). An extensive revolt occurred (115-117) when Procurator Lucius Quietus provoked Kitos War in Jerusalem. Revolt spread to Libya, Cyrenaica, Egypt, Cyprus, Mesopotamia. That ended the Roman eastward expansion.

100 CE

c. 100 CE

Josephus (37? – c. 100), Jewish general, turncoat, historian, hellenist, dies in Rome. Among his extant works are included JW=Jewish War (71); AA=Against Apion (c. 90); JA=Jewish Antiquities (94).Masoretes at Tiberias compiling Masora (MT), standard Scriptures of Judaism.

116 – 117 CE

Jewish uprisings in Palestine, Egypt and Mesopotamia.

132 – 135 CE

Bar Kochba Revolt. Jerusalem razed and Aelia Capitolina built on the site.

200 CE

World Population estimates = 190 – 256 million.In Sepphoris at about this time, Judah ha-Nasi compiled the Mishnah.

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